Refined Consensus Model Research Articles

A map of collective pedagogical content knowledge as a basis for studying the development of biology teachers’ personal PCK of evolution

ABSTRACT In the past few decades, a large body of research has been conducted on pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), but further empirical and theoretical studies are needed to enhance our understanding of PCK development. This study aimed to describe the development of PCK of evolution in a group of biology teachers using a modified version of the refined consensus model (Mixed Model), including the five components of PCK from the model elaborated by Magnusson et al. (1999). The qualitative research design involved multiple study cases, including semi-structured interviews and lesson plan meetings. A collective PCK (cPCK) map was generated via content representation interviews with six expert biology teachers and scholars. The ideas expressed by three or more experts were then included in the cPCK map, which was used to assess the personal PCK (pPCK) development of a different group of seven biology schoolteachers using three traits: map area, map shape, and the identity of the concepts included in the map. The findings show that the development of teachers’ pPCK was mainly due to the increase in the map area resulting from the inclusion of new concepts belonging to knowledge of students learning and to the knowledge associated with strategies.

Subject didactic knowledge (SDK). A heuristic model based on a theory of functional and personal facets of subject-matter education (SME) and its empirical implications

ABSTRACT Empirical research on teachers’ professional knowledge is mostly conducted worldwide with reference to the construct ‘pedagogical content knowledge’ (PCK) introduced by Lee S. Shulman. In the ‘Consensus Model’ (CM) and the ‘Refined Consensus Model’ (RCM), PCK was further developed and differentiated. Nevertheless, neither PCK nor CM and RCM adequately capture the complexity of teachers’ professional knowledge. Thus, educational-theoretical foundations and goals of subject-specific teaching and learning are not sufficiently taken into account. The same applies to personal, emotional and reflective goals of subject-matter education. Against this background, we propose a more comprehensive model, which we call “subject-specific didactic knowledge” (SDK) and which is based on the distinction between two complementary basic forms of subject-specific education (SME): a functional form of SME in the tradition of PCK and literacy (OECD / PISA) and a personal form of SME, which is characterized by the German educational tradition (sensu Wilhelm von Humboldt) and the US-American philosophy of education (sensu George Herbert Mead and John Dewey). We illustrate the practical implications of this approach for subject-matter education and its investigation, using examples from empirical research in curricular based models of teaching and learning in Germany and other countries.

Examining Pre-Service Science Teachers' Personal and Enacted Pedagogical Content Knowledge About Seasons

This study examined pre-service science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) about seasons. The framework of this study was based on the Refined Consensus Model (RCM), and pre-service teachers’ topic-specific PCK was also discussed in two dimensions: personal PCK (pPCK) and enacted PCK (ePCK), which are included in this model. The pPCK of the pre-service teachers represents their declarative PCK, and their ePCK represents their dynamic PCK. This qualitative descriptive research included 18 pre-service science teachers. In the study, knowledge of pre-service teachers’ pPCK was collected in vignette-based individual semi-structured interviews, and data on their competencies regarding their ePCK, which they revealed in a real classroom environment, were collected through field observations and teaching video recordings. The study’s qualitative data were evaluated using two separate rubrics developed by the author using the literature. Accordingly, it was determined that the pre-service teachers who participated in the research had limited pPCK and ePCK on the seasons and that their topic-specific pPCK was partially better quality than their topic-specific ePCK. Moreover, pre-service teachers’ ePCK was observed to be different from their pPCK, but their ePCK was based on their pPCK. In this context, it was seen that the results of this research are consistent with RCM.

The relationship between teachers’ enacted pedagogical content knowledge and student learning in fundamental concepts of electrostatics

ABSTRACT Background It is commonly understood that teachers’ effectiveness is reflected by the performances of their students. On the other hand, teachers’ effectiveness is commonly associated with pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). Purpose This paper reports a mixed method study exploring the relationship between teachers’ PCK and evidence of student learning in fundamental concepts of electrostatics. Sample Two in-service and two pre-service teachers as well as 133 students participated in the present study. Design and methods Data reflecting teachers’ PCK was collected using classroom observations and interviews whereas evidence of student learning was explored using a performance test designed for this research. The PCK and the evidence of student learning were studied in terms of the concepts of electrostatic force, electric field, and electric field strength. The refined consensus model of PCK served as the conceptual framework for the study while the components of the topic-specific PCK model served as the analytical framework. Guided by the components, we developed a rubric to score teachers’ PCK on a four-point scale, separately for each concept. Students’ performance was also separately averaged for each concept. Quantitatively, correlation coefficients were calculated for each concept. Qualitatively, in-depth analysis of students’ test responses in the fundamental concepts was conducted in relation to teachers’ engagements with the corresponding concepts. Results The results revealed moderate correlations in terms of the concepts of electrostatic force and electric field strength whereas the correlation was weak in terms of the electric field. Furthermore, we found that the test responses of students often matched the way they were taught by their teachers, supporting the quantitative results. Conclusion Teachers’ PCK and student learning showed weak and moderate correlations that were positive and significant, suggesting that there are other factors beyond PCK that influence student learning.

Teachers’ Considerations for a Digitalised Learning Context of Preschool Science

AbstractThis study investigates preschool teachers’ considerations for including digital tools in science teaching to develop children’s learning of science content. Due to the ongoing digitalisation and demands in society, the utilisation of digital tools has increased significantly in educational settings. Recent research about digital tools in early childhood education focuses on various aspects of technology implementation. However, there is a research gap in which considerations underpin preschool teachers’ choices of what, why and how they integrate digital tools into science teaching. The data generation was conducted by different methods. The reflection tool Content Representations (CoRe) is used to make the preschool teachers’ considerations explicit when reflecting on planning science teaching regarding specific science content formulated as Big Ideas. Further, video stimulated recall interviews capture the preschool teachers’ considerations on their interactions with children in science activities and using digital tools. The Refined Consensus Model (RCM) of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) was employed as a theoretical framework for analysing and interpreting data around an entire teaching cycle. Some of the teachers’ considerations for including digital tools involve accessing children’s learning, making the abstract concrete and stimulating children’s engagement and learning. Further, the findings indicate that the considerations concerned knowledge about teachers’ personal PCK (pPCK) and enacted PCK (ePCK) aspects.

Capturing and Developing Teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Sustainable Development Using Content Representation and Video-Based Reflection

AbstractThis study focuses on how science teachers’ Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) can be captured and developed with the support of Content representation (CoRe) in combination with video-based reflection when they plan, teach, and reflect on their teaching in sustainable development (SD). The theoretical framework is based on PCK, and the Refined consensus model (RCM) is used as a theoretical lens for conceptualising links between teaching practice and PCK development. Eleven upper-secondary school science teachers participated in the study. Data from two teachers were chosen to illustrate representative examples from the analysis. The findings indicate that the use of CoRe and video-based reflection provides opportunities for teachers to make their knowledge of practice explicit and help them begin to identify aspects within their own practice that are important for the further development of teaching SD. The use of RCM as an analytical tool also makes an important contribution to how RCM can be used to identify and capture teachers’ PCK.

Pedagogical Factors Affecting the Translation of Pedagogical Content Knowledge About Electrostatics into Practice

ABSTRACT Teaching practice internships provide opportunities for pre-service teachers (PSTs) to enact their knowledge in real classroom settings. This paper investigated PSTs’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) about electrostatics, its translation into practice and factors that affect the translation. The refined consensus model (RCM) of PCK served as theoretical framework. Guided by the RCM, two manifestations of enacted PCK (ePCK) focusing on lesson planning (ePCKP) and teaching (ePCKT) were investigated. Data reflecting ePCKP was collected using content representations (CoRe) tools and lesson planning forms. Data reflecting the ePCKT was explored using classroom observations. The components of the grand PCK rubric served as the analytical framework. These are teacher knowledge and skills related to (i) curricular saliency, (ii) learners’ understanding of concepts, and (iii) conceptual teaching strategies including representations. These components were used to analyze the manifestations of ePCK before they were compared. Components that revealed variations between ePCKP and ePCKT were used to formulate interview questions to elicit the pedagogical factors that affected the translation of the PCK into practice. The results revealed multiple instances where there were misalignments between ePCKP and ePCKT. The misalignments were ascribed to the following pedagogical factors: interactions with learners, the involvement of mentor teachers, reflections, management of time for teaching concepts, and teacher efficacy. The results have implications for PST education and mentorship during teaching practice internships.

Investigating the Quality of Enacted Pedagogical Content Knowledge by Mapping Out Component Interactions: A Case Study of a Teacher Educator Teaching Basic Genetics

ABSTRACT The teaching of genetics has not been effective in promoting a scientifically acceptable understanding of basic genetics concepts. This study addresses that gap by reporting on topic-specific pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) enacted by a teacher educator as she teaches a content course on basic genetics concepts to fourth-year pre-service teachers. A qualitative case study was conducted to investigate the nature of manifested content specific component interactions and the possible value in enhancing the learning of basic genetics concepts. This study is rooted in the refined consensus model of PCK with a focus on the enacted PCK (ePCK). The PCK framework informed the understanding of the ePCK components in this study as well as the design of an ePCK rubric and other qualitative analysis enablers. They were used in this study to analyze the data captured through written Content Representations (CoRes), video-recorded lectures, and interviews over a 3-year period. The findings indicate that the ePCK manifested in planning and teaching was reasoned pedagogically and of high quality and more so, perceived to enhance students’ learning. By year three, revealed ePCK consisted mostly of proficient and sophisticated ePCK with coherent component interactions that are indicative of enriched explanations and learning tasks such as the sequencing of the concepts, well-thought-out instructional representations, and learner prior knowledge. Therefore, the generated insights are strong evidence about the kind of teaching that can significantly address misconceptions and what makes genetics concepts difficult to learn- a knowledge that should be significant to others in the field.

Exploring dynamic pedagogical content knowledge across fundamental concepts of electrostatics

This paper reports a case study that explored teachers’ dynamic pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) across three big ideas of electrostatics namely the electrostatic force, electric field, and electric field strength. Two pre-service and two in-service teachers participated in the study. The refined consensus model of PCK was adopted as the theoretical framework for the study. We studied PCK as enacted during classroom teaching using observations and interviews. Data was analyzed alongside a four-point scale grand PCK rubric used to score the competence of the teachers for every big idea. The results showed that PCK of the teachers varied across the big ideas, which is attributed to the nature of concepts, as well as teachers’ content knowledge in each. The findings imply that pre-service teacher education programs should involve focus on teaching specific concepts to support the development of holistic PCK for a topic.

Using Video-Based Simulations to Foster pPCK/ePCK—New Thoughts on the Refined Consensus Model of PCK

This article aims to investigate relationships between the different realms of PCK by referring to the refined consensus model of PCK. We conducted a pre–post study with an intervention using a video-based simulated learning environment to measure different realms of PCK of 78 pre-service biology teachers. The participants were randomly assigned to three groups receiving different treatments in the form of scaffolds while working on the learning environment during the intervention. Only the participants receiving scaffolds referring to their personal PCK significantly improved from the pre-test to the post-test (FpPCK(1,27) = 9.592, p = 0.005, partial η2 = 0.262, n = 28). These scaffolds encourage participants to use their prior knowledge when reflecting on instructional quality, as shown in the simulation. Although the findings of the present study support the theoretical view of the refined consensus model of PCK, more focus on the personal PCK could be helpful to understand how PCK is acquired and organized “within one teacher”.

Using the Plan–Teach–Reflect Cycle of the Refined Consensus Model of PCK to Improve Pre-Service Biology Teachers’ Personal PCK as Well as Their Motivational Orientations

In this article, we analyse how to improve pre-service biology teachers’ pPCK (personal Pedagogical Content Knowledge), professional values and motivational orientations in the field of academic and scientific language. On the basis of the theory of the Refined Consensus Model of PCK (RCM), we made a two-month quasi-experimental intervention study with 32 pre-service biology teachers. As a treatment, we trained the participants in the Plan–Teach–Reflect Cycle of enacted PCK in a school class, in the framework of a seminar. In the control group, the teaching of the cycle was replaced by presentations of their lesson plans. As dependent variables, we analysed participants’ pPCK, professional values and motivational orientations. Our results showed an increase in pre-service biology teachers’ pPCK (F(1,28) = 3.51, p = 0.04, part. η2 = 0.11, d = 0.70) and motivational orientations (F(1,23) = 29.68, p < 0.01, part. η2 = 0.56, d = 2.26) in both groups, but no effects on participants’ professional values. The teaching experience in a school class strengthened the effects both in participants’ pPCK (F(1,28) = 2.92, p = 0.04, part. η2 = 0.10, d = 0.67) and motivational orientations (F(1,23) = 7.64, p < 0.01, part. η2 = 0.25, d = 1.15). We recommend integrating the use of the Plan–Teach–Reflect Cycle of ePCK into science teacher education programmes.

The Refined Consensus Model of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK): Detecting Filters between the Realms of PCK

In this article, we analyse potential filters that moderate the transformation process between the realms of PCK defined in the refined consensus model of pedagogical content knowledge. We tested 58 preservice biology teachers in a 15-week one-group pretest/post-test design. To identify filters between collective PCK (cPCK) and personal PCK (pPCK), we set up moderation models with pretest pPCK as an independent variable, post-test pPCK as a dependent variable, and motivational orientations or professional values as moderator variables. To identify filters between pPCK and enacted PCK (ePCK), we set up moderation models with post-test pPCK as an independent variable, ePCK as a dependent variable, and noticing or knowledge-based reasoning as moderator variables. We did this specifically with a focus on language in biology education. We found that only the variable knowledge-based reasoning had a role as a filter. It moderates the transformation process between pPCK and ePCK (moderation analysis: F(3,19) = 10.40, p < 0.001, predicting 25.72% of the variance). In future studies, other filters should be identified.

Science Teachers’ Pedagogical Scientific Language Knowledge—A Systematic Review

Since students’ knowledge of scientific language can be one of the main difficulties when learning science, teachers must have adequate knowledge of scientific language as well as the teaching and learning of it. Currently, little is known about teachers’ practices and, thus, teachers’ knowledge of scientific language, in general, and the teaching and learning of it (Pedagogical Scientific Language Knowledge, PSLK) in particular. For this reason, with this systematic review, we seek to identify elements of pre- and in-service primary and secondary science teachers’ PSLK. The search was conducted on the database Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) and resulted in 35 articles with empirical evidence after the selection process. The results have been deductively and inductively categorized following the framework of the Refined Consensus Model of Pedagogical Content Knowledge, elaborating elements of different knowledge categories that shape PSLK, as well as PSLK itself (e.g., knowledge of (i) scientific language role models, (ii) making scientific terms and language explicit, (iii) providing a discursive classroom, and (iv) providing multiple representations and resources). We can conclude that more research on PSLK is needed as analyzed articles are mainly based on case studies. Additionally, this paper shows a need for a stronger focus on scientific language in teacher education programs. Implications for further research and teacher education are discussed.

A proficiency model for pre‐service physics teachers' pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)—What constitutes high‐level PCK?

AbstractThis study identifies proficiency levels in pre‐service physics teachers' pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and reveals how teacher education can promote transitions into higher proficiency. Teacher education plays a fundamental role in supporting pre‐service teachers' PCK development. Proficiency levels are a powerful source when evaluating this PCK development because they characterize what learners are likely to be able to know on a specific level. Previous research has presented a model of proficiency levels in pre‐service physics teachers' PCK; however, evidence for the model's validity is still lacking. According to the Refined Consensus Model of PCK, factors such as teachers' content knowledge (CK), their teaching experience, and their beliefs about teaching and learning science promote PCK development. Thus, understanding how and when pre‐service physics teachers' CK, teaching experience, and beliefs contribute to their proficiency can bring insights into how teacher education can promote PCK development. To address this issue, N = 427 observations of pre‐service physics teachers were analyzed. Utilizing the scale anchoring procedure, four different proficiency levels in pre‐service physics teachers' PCK were identified. Analyzing these proficiency levels showed that lower levels can be characterized as remembering content‐unspecific knowledge, whereas higher levels encompass content‐specific strategies to structure and elaborate lessons. Additionally, logistic regression models revealed that pre‐service physics teachers' CK is crucial for an increase in PCK proficiency. However, transitions into higher levels of PCK additionally require teaching experience and adequate beliefs about teaching and learning. Thus, our proficiency levels can be used to bring insights into how proficiency in PCK can be supported during teacher education. For example, teacher education should provide courses focusing on the science curriculum and the assessment of student learning to promote pre‐service physics teachers' progression in PCK.

Modelling STEM Teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge in the Framework of the Refined Consensus Model: A Systematic Literature Review

Science education researchers have developed a refined understanding of the structure of science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), but how to develop applicable and situation-adequate PCK remains largely unclear. A potential problem lies in the diverse conceptualisations of the PCK used in PCK research. This study sought to systematize existing science education research on PCK through the lens of the recently proposed refined consensus model (RCM) of PCK. In this review, the studies’ approaches to investigating PCK and selected findings were characterised and synthesised as an overview comparing research before and after the publication of the RCM. We found that the studies largely employed a qualitative case-study methodology that included specific PCK models and tools. However, in recent years, the studies focused increasingly on quantitative aspects. Furthermore, results of the reviewed studies can mostly be integrated into the RCM. We argue that the RCM can function as a meaningful theoretical lens for conceptualizing links between teaching practice and PCK development by proposing pedagogical reasoning as a mechanism and/or explanation for PCK development in the context of teaching practice.

Pedagogical chemistry sensemaking: a novel conceptual framework to facilitate pedagogical sensemaking in model-based lesson planning

Researchers have typically identified and characterized teachers’ knowledge bases (e.g., pedagogical content knowledge and subject matter knowledge) in an effort to improve enacted instructional strategies. As shown by the Refined Consensus Model (RCM), understanding teacher learning, beliefs, and practices is predicated on the interconnections of such knowledge bases. However, lesson planning (defined as the transformation of subject matter knowledge to enacted pedagogical content knowledge) remains underexplored despite its central position in the RCM. We aim to address this gap by developing a conceptual framework known as Pedagogical Chemistry Sensemaking (PedChemSense). PedChemSense theoretically expands upon the RCM that generates actionable guidelines to support chemsistry teachers’ lesson planning. We incorporate the constructs of sensemaking, Johnstone's triangle, and the models for perspective to provide a lesson-planning mechanism that is specific, accessible, and practical, respectively. Lesson examples from our own professional development contexts, the VisChem Institute, demonstrate the efficacy of PedChemSense. By leveraging teachers’ sensemaking of the limitations and utility of models, PedChemSense facilitates teachers’ designing for opportunities to advance their students’ chemistry conceptual understanding. Implications and recommendations for chemistry instruction and research at secondary and undergraduate levels are discussed.

Pre-service science teachers’ and in-service physics teachers’ views on the knowledge and skills of a good teacher

Science teacher knowledge and skills have been thoroughly discussed by researchers; however, less is known about how teachers themselves conceptualise their professional qualities. We asked first and final-year pre-service science teachers and in-service physics teachers to describe the knowledge and skills needed to be a good science/physics teacher. Data was collected through a one-item questionnaire, followed by interviews. Using thematic coding with inductively defined codes as well as codes derived from theoretical perspectives on teacher knowledge and skills (notably the Refined Consensus Model of PCK), we found that all respondent groups emphasised science content knowledge as important. In-service teachers also often described external factors such as working conditions. First-year pre-service teachers put more emphasis on pedagogical skills and personality traits, whereas final-year pre-service teachers expressed a more integrated view of science teacher knowledge and skills. Further, we discuss the need for teacher education to focus on integrating science content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge through articulating aspects of PCK, and on giving pre- and in-service teachers arenas for professional development and for research-based discussions of teaching and learning.

Enacted Pedagogical Content Knowledge Profiles of Chemistry Teachers

This research focuses on chemistry teachers’ enacted pedagogical content knowledge (ePCK) in equilibrium in chemical reactions. The enactment dimension of this pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) encompasses enacted knowledge and skills as well as those embedded in practice concerning the Refined Consensus Model of PCK, the most recent PCK model in science education. As ePCK plays out throughout the whole pedagogical cycle, it was conceptualized as to exist in three forms, such that ePCKP, ePCKT, and ePCKR. While ePCKP and ePCKR represent the knowledge and skills that a teacher uses for planning and reflecting respectively, ePCKT is related to what a teacher does in the classroom. The holistic nature of ePCK was investigated by using multiple data sources in real-life contexts. Specifically, pre-and post-observation interviews and lesson observations were used to elicit ePCK profiles and to provide triangulation. The grand rubric was customized for use both as an interview protocol and as an observational protocol for analyzing all of the three dimensions of ePCK around the analytical parameters of knowledge and skills related to curricular saliency, conceptual teaching strategies, and student understanding of science. Results revealed that chemistry teachers’ ePCK profiles are not uniform across planning, teaching, and reflecting phases, ePCK components, and evaluation criteria. Chemistry teachers perform highest in reflection concerning conceptual teaching strategies and lowest in teaching in terms of curricular saliency. Recommendations for science PCK research were shared.

Development of Science Teachers’ PCK About Waves Through Training in the Use of the Ripple Tank Apparatus

This study investigated the effect of in-service training in the use of the ripple tank equipment on science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) about the topic of waves. Three Grade 10 Physical Sciences teachers participated in this qualitative case study. The Refined Consensus Model informed the conceptual framework of this study, considering PCK at a topic level within each of the three realms of PCK. The training exposed teachers to the collective realm of PCK with the intention of developing their personal PCK about the topic. Teachers’ personal PCK was explored by means of written Content Representations before as well as after the training. After the training, teachers’ enacted PCK was observed and video-recorded while teaching the topic of waves to their learners. Pedagogical reasoning was elicited through video stimulated recall interviews. The post-training interviews also provided insight into participants’ general views about the in-service training. The results show that the participants’ personal PCK improved and that some of the content and skills taught during in-service training were utilized in the enacted PCK of two of the participants, particularly regarding conceptual teaching strategies. Least improvement occurred for the component of teachers’ knowledge of learners’ understanding. We found evidence that teachers’ beliefs influence their pedagogical reasoning, acting as amplifiers and filters to translate newly acquired personal PCK into enacted PCK: teachers who prioritise hands-on experiences and teaching for understanding as opposed to rote learning are more receptive to training in the use of apparatus. The study therefore shows that training in the use of the ripple tank equipment improved in unique ways each of the teachers’ PCK about waves.

Professional knowledge affectsaction‐relatedskills: The development ofpreservicephysics teachers' explaining skills during a field experience

AbstractProfessional knowledge is an important source of science teachers' actions in the classroom (e.g., personal professional content knowledge [pedagogical content knowledge, PCK] is the source of enacted PCK in the refined consensus model [RCM] for PCK). However, the evidence for this claim is ambiguous at best. This study applied a cross‐lagged panel design to examine the relationship between professional knowledge and actions in one particular instructional situation: explaining physics. Pre‐ and post a field experience (one semester), 47 preservice physics teachers from four different universities were tested for their content knowledge (CK), PCK, pedagogical knowledge (PK), and action‐related skills in explaining physics. The study showed that joint professional knowledge (the weighted sum of CK, PCK, and PK scores) at the beginning of the field experience impacted the development of explaining skills during the field experience (β= .38**). We interpret this as a particular relationship between professional knowledge and science teachers' action‐related skills (enacted PCK): professional knowledge is necessary for the development of explaining skills. That is evidence that personal PCK affects enacted PCK. In addition, field experiences are often supposed to bridge the theory‐practice gap by transforming professional knowledge into instructional practice. Our results suggest that for field experiences to be effective, preservice teachers should start with profound professional knowledge.