Refined Canola Oil Research Articles

Fast biodiesel production via potassium ferrate catalysis at room temperature using used cooking oil and refined canola oil

Abstract As biodiesel is continuously aimed to be a better alternative to petroleum-based diesel fuel, the University of the Philippines Los Baños – Interdisciplinary Biofuels Research Studies Center (UPLB-IBRSC) continues to explore process conversion techniques to improve efficiencies in biodiesel production. In this study, the catalytic activity of potassium ferrate in the transesterification of canola oil and used cooking oil for biodiesel production at room temperature was examined for potential reduction in energy consumption. Parameters such as methanol-to-oil molar ratio, catalyst loading, and reaction time were varied to determine their effects on biodiesel yield and purity. Thin layer chromatography was applied to qualitatively analyze the biodiesel, while ImageJ software was used for purity determination. The characterization analysis confirmed that the refined canola oil used in the study has an acceptable FFA content of 0.06%. On the other hand, the used cooking oil showed an FFA content of 3.71%, which is beyond the desired limit of 2%. Hence, neutralization through the addition of potassium hydroxide was performed, resulting in a lowered FFA content of 0.86%. Experimental results of the parametric and optimization study on used cooking oil showed that an optimum conversion of 86.55% was achieved at a 2:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio, 5 wt% catalyst loading, and 90 minutes reaction time. Consequently, a yield of 83.21% was attained using refined canola oil at the optimum conditions of 6:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio, 3 wt% catalyst loading, and 69 minutes reaction time. Generally, findings show that catalyst loading and reaction time significantly affect the biodiesel yield and purity only up to a certain optimum value. The methanol-to-oil ratio, on the other hand, showed to have a significant inverse relationship on yield and purity. Compared to the typical biodiesel production process at 60 °C with up to two hours of reaction time, this study which describes a catalytic process at room temperature and a relatively shorter reaction time, showed the potential to reduce significantly the high energy consumption in biodiesel production.

Oleogel-based frying medium: influence of rice bran wax-canola oil oleogel on volatile profile in fried fish fillets

Oleogelation has proven to be a successful strategy for structuring oils. In recent years, the use of oleogels as a deep frying medium has gained popularity as an effective approach to minimise oil uptake and reduce the energy content of fried foods. This study was designed to evaluate an oleogel matrix consisting of rice bran wax and canola oil, prepared by oleogelation technique, as a deep frying medium. Two types of the oleogels (CRBO-3 with 3 g wax/100 g oil; CRBO-6 with 6 g wax/100 g oil) were formulated and these oleogels were tested as a frying medium for fish fillets. The prepared oleogels were compared with refined canola oil (CO, control) and evaluated for both the frying stability of the oils and the volatile profile of the fried fish fillets. In particular, differences were observed in the crystallization and melting profiles of oleogels before and after frying. Lower levels of total polar material, peroxide value and trans fatty acids contents were noticed in fish fillets fried in the oleogels. An increase in wax concentration had an impact on the volatile profile of fish fillets and lead significant increases in p-xylene, pentene-3-ol and nonanoic acid. In general, oleogel-based frying medium contributed to the formation of characteristic fish fillet including aroma notes of pineapple, balsamic and honey when compared to fish fried in refined canola oil. The findings suggest oleogels as an alternative frying medium for fish with reduced calorie value and improved aromatic quality.Graphical

Improving quality of refined canola oil byliquid–liquidextraction on pilot scale apparatus

AbstractThe aim of this work was to refine expeller‐pressed crude canola oil by pilot scale liquid–liquid extraction with hydrated ethanol as solvent. Quality indices were determined, and shelf life was estimated in the accelerated test. The scale projection was performed based on the results of the pilot scale. The experimental device operates in a batch process with 89.6% yield deacidification and an average of 4.4 contacts per assay. In this process, without bleaching and deodorization steps, physicochemical parameters were according to theCodex Alimentariusstandards, except moisture. In this way, it will be necessary to apply nonthermal techniques to remove water. The major fatty acids identified were oleic and linoleic acid and the absence of trans fatty acids. For the shelf life, the refined oil presented free fatty acids 0.28% and peroxide value 12.65 meq O2kg−1after 24 hr at 65°C. The pilot scale results showed that the technique is suitable to produce edible oils. A liquid–liquid extractor was designed for industrial scale with the total volume will be 12,000 L. To process 6 tons of crude canola oil per day, the unit will be able to produce 1.3 thousand tons per year of refined canola oil.Practical applicationsAfter acid degumming, canola oil was submitted to liquid–liquid extraction, using ethanol as solvent. As a result, two traditional steps of refining vegetable oils have been eliminated: bleaching and deodorization. This fact directly impacts on physical space of industry, maintenance of equipment and need for operators.Transfats were not detected in canola oil, pointing that the technique is efficient in the production of healthier oils, with less environmental impact.

Heterogeneous Distribution of Erucic Acid in Brassica napus Seeds.

Brassica napus (B. napus) is the world's most widely grown temperate oilseed crop. Although breeding for human consumption has led to removal of erucic acid from refined canola oils, there is renewed interest in the industrial uses of erucic acid derived from B. napus, and there is a rich germplasm available for use. Here, low- and high-erucic acid accessions of B. napus seeds were examined for the distribution of erucic acid-containing lipids and the gene transcripts encoding the enzymes involved in pathways for its incorporation into triacylglycerols (TAGs) across the major tissues of the seeds. In general, the results indicate that a heterogeneous distribution of erucic acid across B. napus seed tissues was contributed by two isoforms (out of six) of FATTY ACYL COA ELONGASE (FAE1) and a combination of phospholipid:diacylglycerol acyltransferase (PDAT)- and diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT)-mediated incorporation of erucic acid into TAGs in cotyledonary tissues. An absence of the expression of these two FAE1 isoforms accounted for the absence of erucic acid in the TAGs of the low-erucic accession.

Different Processing Practices and the Frying Life of Refined Canola Oil.

Refined expeller-pressed (RCanO-I and RCanO-II) and expeller-pressed and solvent-extracted blended (RCanO-III and RCanO-IV) canola oils were compared to determine the effect of processing (extraction) practice on the frying life of canola oil. Samples were from the 2016/2017 and 2017/2018 production seasons and were used to fry potato chips for 36 to 48 cycles. Frying life was assessed by the total polar compounds, retention of tocopherols, antioxidant activity, and other quality indices. RCanO-II exhibited significantly, the longest frying life as compared with the other three oils and this correlated with tocopherol retention and antioxidant activity (p < 0.05). The extraction practice influenced the frying life of canola oil, but this was dependent on other processing practices employed by the individual processors. Variations in initial oil quality dictated the rates of chemical reactions occurring in the oils during frying and influenced oil stability.

Simultaneous Analysis of Epoxidized and Hydroperoxidized Triacylglycerols in Canola Oil and Margarine by LC-MS.

The progress of lipid oxidation in foods is evaluated by measuring the peroxides and their scission products. However, hydrogen abstraction-independent pathways are not considered by commonly applied methods despite the known reactivity of epoxides toward biomolecules. Herein, a novel liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry method was developed to detect hydroperoxidized and epoxidized triacylglycerols (TAGs) without derivatization or hydrolyzation of food samples. Epoxidized TAGs could be detected in refined canola oil at concentrations of 96.8 ± 2.08 μM, while only 5.77 ± 0.04 μM hydroperoxidized TAGs could be determined. In contrast to canola oil, margarine was more resistant to lipid oxidation since generation of epoxidized TAGs could only be marginally enhanced from 21.7 ± 0.48 to 28.8 ± 0.64 μM in margarine after treatment at 180 °C for 60 min, as also reflected by a peroxide value of 0.80 ± 0.00 mequiv O2/kg, which remained unchanged. The new method allows the assessment of food safety by the simultaneous measurement of hydroperoxidized and epoxidized TAGs without hydrolysis and laborious sample preparation.

Evaluation of the reaction conditions in the transesterification of canola oil for biodiesel production

The development of renewable fuels has received great attention in recent years. Fatty acid esters, known as biodiesel, are promising for partially or total diesel replacement. Therefore, the objective of this work was to evaluate the reaction conditions of transesterification of refined canola oil and a quality of biodiesel produced. The influence of the different alkaline catalysts, the catalyst amount, stirring speed, molar ratio of oil:alcohol and the alcohol type were assessed. The ester yield in the best reaction conditions were 96.1 ± 1.26% for ethanol and 95.32 ± 2.68% for methanol. The biodiesel produced was analyzed according to the ANP (Agência Nacional de Petróleo, Gás Natual e Biodiesel) quality norms. The esters showed good quality in relation to the cold filter plugging point, oxidation stability and the cetane number.

Characterization of tocopherols, tocotrienols and total carotenoids in deep-fat fried French fries

French fries were deep-fat fried in crude palm oil (CPO), refined canola oil (RCO) and a blend of CPO/RCO (1:1 w/w) at 170 °C for different durations. The fries were analyzed for the presence of certain bioactive nutrients originating from the frying oils. The French fries absorbed over 50% of total carotenoids, 40% of tocotrienols and <20% of tocopherols from the oils. The order of enrichment based on the frying oil was CPO/RCO blend> CPO > RCO. The moisture ratio, oil uptake, and browning index were modeled with a first order kinetic model, while the changes in the concentration of nutrients in the fries were modeled using the biphasic first order model. In all cases, the coefficients of determination, R2, calculated were above 0.92. The French fries produced using CPO and the blend of CPO/RCO absorbed less oil and were significantly enriched with carotenoids and vitamin E.

Thermostability and degradation kinetics of tocochromanols and carotenoids in palm oil, canola oil and their blends during deep-fat frying

The thermostability of tocochromanols (tocopherols and tocotrienols) and carotenoids in virgin palm oil (VPO), refined canola oil (RCO) and blends of the two oils under deep-fat frying conditions at 170–190 °C was investigated. Normal-phase HPLC was used to monitor the tocochromanols variation over frying time at each temperature. The changes in total carotenoids content was analyzed spectrophotometrically. The deterioration kinetic rate of each homolog detected followed a reaction order greater than 1. The rates were dependent on frying temperatures and were satisfactorily modeled by the Arrhenius relationship. The rate of deterioration and the activation energy showed that the least stable homologs were γ-tocopherol and γ-tocotrienol while δ-tocotrienol and carotenoids were the most stable. In VPO, the carotenoids were more retained while the tocochromanols were less stable. This was further evidenced by the high activation energy (Ea of 71 ± 5 kJ/mol) for carotenoids in VPO. The tocopherol and tocotrienol homologs had greater stability in the blends as shown by their comparatively higher Ea values. The Ea for γ-tocopherol, γ-tocotrienol, α-tocopherol and α-tocotrienol in the blend were 20 ± 2, 47 ± 16, 48 ± 9, and 74 ± 4 kJ/mol, respectively. These behaviors are related to the initial composition of the oils and their calculated oxidizability (Cox) value.

A comparative study on the effect of unsaturation degree of camelina and canola oils on the optimization of bio-diesel production

Abstract Transesterification is the most common method of producing biodiesel from vegetable oils. A comparative study on the optimization of reaction variables for refined canola oil, unrefined canola oil, and unrefined camelina oil using a four-factor (temperature, time, molar ratio of methanol to oil, and catalyst loading) face-centered central composite design (FCCCD) was carried out. The optimum settings of these four factors that jointly maximize product, fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) and biodiesel yields for each of refined canola, unrefined canola and unrefined camelina were determined. Results showed that the optimized conditions were associated with the fatty acid profile and physical properties of the parent oils. The optimum temperature of vegetable oil with low polyunsaturation degree was higher than that of oils with high polyunsaturation degree. High free fatty acid content in parent oils led to low optimized catalyst concentration, and the decreased reaction rate could be compensated by increased reaction temperature due to significant interaction effect between reaction temperature and catalyst loading in the transesterification process. The highest biodiesel yields from the optimum setting for refined canola oil, unrefined canola oil, and unrefined camelina oil were 97.7%, 95.2%, and 95.6%, respectively. This study provided guidelines on how to optimize different reaction variables taking economic viability and feedstock availability into consideration when producing biodiesel at plant scale.

Deterioration Kinetics of Crude Palm Oil, Canola Oil and Blend During Repeated Deep‐Fat Frying

AbstractThe oxidation of vegetable oils is generally treated as an apparent first order kinetic reaction. This study investigated the deterioration of crude palm oil (CPO), refined canola oil (RCO) and their blend (CPO:RCO 1:1 w/w) during 20 h of successive deep‐fat frying at 170, 180 and 190 °C. Kinetics of changes in oil quality indices, namely, free fatty acid (FFA), peroxide value (PV), anisidine value (p‐AV), total polar compounds (TPC) and color index (CI) were monitored. The results showed that FFA and PV accumulation followed the kinetic first order model, while p‐AV, TPC and CI followed the kinetic zero order model. The concentration and deterioration rate constants k, increased with increasing temperatures. This effect of temperature was modeled by the Arrhenius equation. The results showed that PV had the least activation energies Ea (kJ/mol) values of 5.4 ± 1 (RCO), 6.6 ± 0.7 (CPO) and 11.4 ± 1 (blend). The highest Ea requirement was exhibited by FFA with a range of 31.7 ± 3–76.5 ± 7 kJ/mol for the three oils. The overall Ea values showed that the stability of the blend was superior and not just intermediate of CPO and RCO. The correlation of the other oil quality indices with TPC indicated a positive linear correlation. The p‐AV displayed the strongest correlation, with mean correlation coefficient rs of 0.998 ± 0.00, 0.994 ± 0.00 and 0.999 ± 0.00 for CPO, RCO and blend, respectively.

Prediction of Cold Flow Properties of Biodiesel Fuel Using Artificial Neural Network

Artificial neural network (ANN) can be utilized as a tool for modeling the properties of biodiesel fuel those are related to the fatty acid (FA) composition of a feedstock. The cold flow properties (CFP) define the operability for diesel fuel which are strongly influenced by the FA composition of feedstock. Cloud point (CP), pour point (PP) and cold filter plugging point (CFPP) are used commonly to characterize CFP. Prediction of CFP based on the FA composition of feedstock can reduce the experimental effort to produce a biodiesel suitable for a regional climate. In an attempt for this, 9-6-3 back-propagation ANN architecture was implemented to estimate CP, PP and CFPP of biodiesel samples using nine FA components as input data of 103 biodiesel study collected from literature. To check the accuracy of the model developed, refined canola oil (RCO) and waste frying oil (WFO) were converted to biodiesel then, their CP, PP and CFPP temperatures were determined following the EN and ASTM standards. The CFP estimated by the ANN model were in close agreement with the experimental values. When compared with the experimental data, ANN model predicted the CP, PP and CFPP temperatures within 98%, 94% and 96% accuracy, respectively. The model developed has revealed that CFP of biodiesel were influenced primarily by saturation or unsaturation of FA components with a few exceptions. Since the ANN model can be trained from iterations, it predicted CFP with high accuracy inspite of the presence of nonlinearities, i.e. the average of the mean R2 value for the three CFP was found as 0.96.

Influence of oil quality on biodiesel purification by ultrafiltration

In the present study, biodiesel was produced by ethylic transesterification of soybean and canola oils using sodium hydroxide as a catalyst. It was evaluated the influence of oil quality on the biodiesel and glycerol separation by ultrafiltration. The experiments were carried out with tubular a-Al2O3/TiO2 membranes with average pore diameter of 0.05µm and 20kDa, varying the transmembrane pressure and the concentration of the feed mixture. The comparison among the use of degummed soybean oil, refined soybean oil, crude canola oil, and refined canola oil, demonstrated that free fatty acid presented in the oils influence the formation of droplets containing glycerol. The separation was efficient when reaction mixture was produced from degummed soybean oil and crude canola oil, both with a higher acidity value. The highest free fatty acid content in the crude canola oil, not only favored the formation of a dispersed phase containing glycerol, which was retained by the membrane, but also resulted in the lowest flux decline rates. The ultrafiltration was efficient in removing glycerol, since the highest glycerol content in the permeate was 0.013wt%. This novel refining process of biodiesel showed the advantage of not requiring previous decantation to separate the two phases obtained after transesterification and the reduction in the amount of water used in the washing steps. The properties of the biodiesel produced, which were evaluated, meet the ANP biodiesel standards required for marketing.

Design of a Small Scale Pilot Biodiesel Production Plant and Determination of the Fuel Properties of Biodiesel Produced With This Plant

A small scale pilot biodiesel production plant that has a volume of 65 liters/day has been designed, constructed and tested. The plant was performed using oil mixture (50% wild mustard seed oil + 50% refined canola oil) and methanol with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) catalyst. The fuel properties of biodiesel indicated as density at 15oC (889.64 kg/m3), kinematic viscosity at 40oC (6.975 mm2/s), flash point (170oC), copper strip corrosion (1a), water content (499.87 mg/kg), and calorific value (39.555 MJ/kg), respectively.

Crude canolol and canola distillate extracts improve the stability of refined canola oil during deep‐fat frying

Crude canolol (CAN) extracted from canola meal by accelerated solvent extraction and phenolic extracts from canola oil deodistillates (DDL) were assessed for their potential to stabilize canola oil during deep‐fat frying. Phenolics extracted from DDL with methanol ranged from 0 to 323 μg/g of DDL phenolics. French fries were deep fried in canola oil (3 L) enriched with 200 ppm of BHT, DDL, or CAN at 185 ± 5°C for 5 min. Twelve batches of fries (30 g each) were fried each day, 30 min apart for a total of 6 h of frying for 5 days. Both CAN and DDL extracts exhibited protection against frying oil deterioration compared to BHT with a considerable reduction in the hydroperoxides after the first day of frying. The ability to reduce primary oxidation was highest with CAN followed by DDL compared to BHT and the control (CAN&gt;DD&gt;Control). The total oxidation (TOTOX) and conjugated diene/triene values of oils fried with DDL and CAN were significantly (p&lt;0.05) lower than BHT. Oil color correlated with AV (R2 = 0.822–0.985) in an exponential model with no major differences as compared to the control. In conclusion, based on the initial PV, TOTOX, and conjugated dienes, DDL and CAN both proved effective in inhibiting lipid oxidation during deep‐fat frying.Practical applications: Oil deodistillate is an excellent starting material for the production/recovery of a variety of bioactive components such as tocopherols, phenolics, phytosterols, or squalene. The present study confirms the beneficial effects of canolol and DDL phenolic extracts as antioxidants during the deep‐fat frying of canola oil. DDL is an abundant oil‐refining by‐product and this study demonstrates the value‐added potential of DDL as a crude source of phenolic antioxidants. This will provide new avenues for the value‐added opportunities due to their potent antioxidants. In contrast to the commonly applied synthetic antioxidants, the phenolic extracts tested in this study are part of endogenous oil components either removed from crude oil during refining (DDL) or produced during oil extraction process (canolol).Crude canolol and deodistillate (DDL) extracts protects canola oil from oxidative deterioration during deep‐frying at 185°C. The protective effect of crude DDL extracts and canolol extracts as indicated from the total oxidation (TOTOX) value of oils indicates potential for value‐addition of DDL.

Effects of vegetable-based cutting fluids on the wear in drilling

This study focuses on both formulation of vegetable-based cutting fluids (VBCFs) and machining with these cutting fluids. For this purpose, characterizations of chemical and physical analyses of these formulated cutting fluids are carried out. In this study, performances of three VBCFs developed from crude sunflower oil, refined sunflower oil, refined canola oil and commercial semi-synthetic cutting fluid are compared in terms of tool wear, thrust force and surface roughness during drilling of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel with HSSE tool. Experimental results show that canola-based cutting fluid gives the best performance due to its higher lubricant properties with respect to other cutting fluids at the constant cutting conditions (spindle speed of 750 rpm and feed rate of 0.1 mm/rev).

Chemical Stability of the Lipid Phase in Concentrated Beverage Emulsions Colored with Natural β‐Carotene

The aim of this study was to examine the oxidation of selected plant oils in concentrated beverage emulsions colored with natural β-carotene. Carotenoid preparations obtained from carrots were dissolved in cold-pressed linseed oil, refined canola oil, and refined palm olein. Oxidative stability of the lipids was examined with and without addition of the pigment to the oil/water (O/W) emulsion. Carotenoid/lipid hydro peroxide (LOOH) concentration was evaluated using two different methods: LOOH + Fe2+ reaction connected with a colored complex of ammonium thiocyanate determined with the help of a spectrophotometer, and LOOH determined with the help of a chemiluminometer. It was shown that oxidation rate of lipids in the O/W emulsions strongly depended on chemical composition of the lipid fraction (type of oil used). Presence of the carotenoid pigment increased the rate. Therefore, if a carotenoid-containing emulsion is to be stable, it should be based on oils of a high oxidative stability.

Surface‐Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy of Tribochemically Formed Boundary Films of Refined and Unrefined Canola Oils

AbstractThe paper reports the investigation of tribochemically formed boundary films of canola oils using surface‐enhanced Raman spectroscopy. This is the first time that metallic surfaces lubricated by plant oils have been studied using this technique. The results of this work provided strong evidence that fatty acids were liberated from the triglyceride structure during sliding to form a fatty acid soap layer on the silver surface. The study also revealed that the fatty acid chains of the unrefined canola oil were more disordered and most likely in a gauche conformation, while that of the refined canola oil were tightly packed and oriented perpendicular to the surface. It is believed that the greater presence of polar minor components in the unrefined oil, such as phospholipids, interfered with the ability of free fatty acids to form a tightly packed monolayer on the silver surface.

Effect of Seed Heat-Treatment on the Oxidative Stability of Canola Oil Body Emulsions

Enhancement of oxidative stability of canola oil extracted from seed subjected to prior heat-treatment has been attributed to heat-induced generation of antioxidants from phenolic precursors occurring in canola seed. Dispersion of aqueous extracts of intact seed oil bodies (OBs) in water is a novel and interesting way of producing natural and oxidatively stable food emulsions with minimal use of synthetic antioxidants and emulsifiers. As there is growing interest in natural food emulsions containing unsaturated oils, we investigated whether the oxidative stability of canola OB emulsions could be further improved by subjecting canola seed to heat-treatment prior to oil body extraction. Oil-in-water (5%, w/w) emulsions of OBs extracted from canola seed before and after heat-treatment were considerably more resistant to oxidation than emulsions prepared from refined canola oil and Tween? 40 emulsifier. However, only small amounts (0.9% - 4.5% by weight) of the phenolic compounds present in canola seed were transferred to the OBs after aqueous extraction, and consequently there was no discernible effect on oxidative stability as a result of prior heat-treatment of the seed. Thus, in contrast to oil, there is no oxidative stability benefit to be gained by subjecting canola seed to heat-treatment prior to extraction of OBs.

The effect of dietary fish oil and poultry fat replacement with canola oil on swimming performance and metabolic response to hypoxia in stream type spring Chinook salmon parr

Swimming performance, metabolic rate, and the metabolic response to hypoxia were measured in stream-type spring Chinook salmon parr ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) that had been reared for up to 40 weeks on diets where varying levels of refined canola oil (CO) replaced anchovy oil and poultry fat as the source of supplemental dietary lipids. Thus, CO comprised either 0% (dAPF), 25% (CO25), 49% (CO49), or 72% (CO72) of total dietary lipid. Aerobic swimming performance (repeat U crit test) was unaffected by diet in freshwater or following 24 h exposure to 75% seawater. Resting oxygen consumption (MO 2) and metabolic response to hypoxia (as indicated by the critical oxygen tension, P crit) were also unaffected by diet. Although dietary fatty acid (FA) composition clearly affected the FA composition of whole body total lipids in Chinook salmon parr, it had little effect on the FA composition and unsaturation index of whole body polar lipids. Chinook salmon parr maintained their polar lipid composition and unsaturation index, possibly through bioconversion of 18:3n−3 (linolenic acid; LNA) and 18:2n−6 (linoleic acid; LA) to their more highly unsaturated derivatives and/or by selective incorporation and retention of omega-3 FAs into the polar lipids. Because the polar lipids are largely found in membranes, this may indicate that membrane lipid composition was relatively constant across dietary groups and this, in turn, may largely explain the lack of physiological effects observed in this study. Taken together with a companion study on this same group of fish (Huang et al., 2008) where dietary treatment was not observed to adversely affect fish growth, feed intake and utilization, survival, and ionoregulatory development, there appears to be great potential for inclusion of CO in the diets of farmed pre-smolt Chinook salmon.