Reef Fisheries Research Articles

Emergence of co-management governance for Hawai‘i coral reef fisheries

Governance failures associated with top-down management have spawned a myriad of institutional arrangements to engage resource users in decision-making through co-management. Although co-management can take many forms and may not always lead to positive outcomes, it has emerged as a promising governance option available to meet social and ecological goals. Recent research on co-management of small-scale fisheries has used comparative approaches to test factors associated with social and ecological success. Less is known however, about how co-management institutional arrangements emerge and persist in the face of socioeconomic and environmental change. Here, we examine the emergence of co-management governance using a case study from coral reef fisheries in the Hawaiian Islands. We used a mixed methods approach, combining a robust policy analysis and a set of key respondent interviews to trace the evolution of this co-management arrangement. Our research uncovers a set of linked drivers and social responses, which together comprise the emergence phase for the evolution of co-management in this case study. Drivers include resource depletion and conflict, and social responses comprise self-organization, consensus building, and collective action. We share insights on key factors that affect these phases of emergence, drawing on empirical findings from our policy review and key respondent interviews. We conclude by describing ways that our findings can directly inform policy and planning in practice, including the importance of documenting the ‘creation story’ that spawned the new institutional arrangement, ensuring that enabling conditions are present, the complexity of defining community, the connection between process legitimacy and outcomes, and understanding the costs and timelines associated with co-management governance transitions.

Minimizing the Short‐Term Impacts of Marine Reserves on Fisheries While Meeting Long‐Term Goals for Recovery

AbstractMarine reserves are a promising tool for recovering overfished ecosystems. However, reserves designed to rebuild profits in the long‐term may cause short‐term losses—a serious issue in regions where fisheries are key for food security. We examine the tension between the long‐term benefits of reserves and short‐term losses, using a multispecies model of coral reef fisheries. Reserves designed to maximize long‐term profits caused significant short‐term losses. We model several policy solutions, where we incrementally increased either: the number of months per year that the reserve is closed to fishing; the size of the reserve; or the number species protected within the reserve. Protecting species sequentially, starting with the most valued species, provided the best outcome in the short‐term with the most rapid recovery of profits. Solving the dilemma of meeting short‐ and long‐term goals will ultimately improve the effectiveness of marine reserves for managing fisheries and conserving ecosystems.

Marine ecological footprint indicates unsustainability of the Pohnpei (Micronesia) coral reef fishery

SUMMARYThroughout the tropics, developing countries and territories are highly dependent on nearshore marine resources for food and income, however information on the sustainability and proper management of these fisheries is lacking. In Pohnpei, Micronesia, the sustainability of a coral reef finfishery was assessed by comparing coral reef fish demand to coral reef biocapacity using a marine ecological footprint (MEF) analysis. Based on geo-referenced satellite and aerial imagery, Pohnpei and surrounding atolls have 184.2 km2 of coral reef habitat with a sustainable finfish yield of 573–1118 t yr−1, however total harvest was estimated at 4068 t yr−1, exceeding biocapacity by 360–710%. The MEF was supported by observed impacts to coral reef resources, including (1) long-term declines in fish spawning aggregation density, (2) reductions in mean size, age and fecundity of key commercial species, (3) reliance on undersized fish, and (4) decadal declines in mean size and abundance of fishes of iconic value and critical to ecosystem maintenance. The commercial fishery was responsible for 68% of finfish catch volume, while reef fish consumption, at 93 kg person−1 yr−1, was among the highest in the region. To sustainably meet current demand, up to 833 km2 of additional reef area would be required. The study illustrates the MEF, at least rudimentarily, reflects biological reality on local reefs and represents a valuable analytical tool in a marine policymaker's toolbox.

Coral–algal phase shifts alter fish communities and reduce fisheries production

Anthropogenic stress has been shown to reduce coral coverage in ecosystems all over the world. A phase shift towards an algae-dominated system may accompany coral loss. In this case, the composition of the reef-associated fish assemblage will change and human communities relying on reef fisheries for income and food security may be negatively impacted. We present a case study based on the Raja Ampat Archipelago in Eastern Indonesia. Using a dynamic food web model, we simulate the loss of coral reefs with accompanied transition towards an algae-dominated state and quantify the likely change in fish populations and fisheries productivity. One set of simulations represents extreme scenarios, including 100% loss of coral. In this experiment, ecosystem changes are driven by coral loss itself and a degree of habitat dependency by reef fish is assumed. An alternative simulation is presented without assumed habitat dependency, where changes to the ecosystem are driven by historical observations of reef fish communities when coral is lost. The coral–algal phase shift results in reduced biodiversity and ecosystem maturity. Relative increases in the biomass of small-bodied fish species mean higher productivity on reefs overall, but much reduced landings of traditionally targeted species.

Analysis of proximate composition and consumer preference of three reef fish species

Reef fishery plays a very important role in the coastal fishing of Sri Lanka and also there is a belief that some reef fishes provide special health benefits. However, the information available on chemical composition of reef fish is very limited. This study is based on the consumer preference survey conducted through an interview of 60 consumers at three retail markets in Sri Lanka namely Dondra, Matara and Weligama. Proximate composition was also analyzed for three highly consumer preferred reef fish species. A total of 34 fish, representing at least 11 specimens from each of the three fish species were analyzed for moisture, protein, lipid, ash and the total energy content. Gonado-somatic index (GSI), hepato-somatic index (HSI) and condition factor (K) were also calculated from January to April 2012. It was revealed that consumers highly preferred Lethrines olivaceus (Long–face emperor) (27%) whereas preference for Epinephelus merra (Honey comb grouper) and Lutjanus rivulatus (Blubber-lip snapper) were 17% and 9% respectively. Two way ANOVA showed no significant difference in the moisture and ash content among three species, but there was a significant difference (p<0.05) in protein and fat content. Highest protein content was in E. merra (89%), while its lipid content was 5-8% (of the dry weight). Three species had condition factors above 1.7, which indicates their relative healthiness, with respect to food and space within the southern coastal waters of Sri Lanka. E. merra had the highest GSI values while L. olivaceus and L. rivulatus had the lowest and intermediate values respectively, which can be related to their gonadal development stage. The HSI was negatively related to total energy of females of E. merra and L. olivaceus, which could be due to energy reservation in liver than in muscles for their reproduction, while in L. rivulatus such a trend was not evident possibly due to prominent lipid storage structures within their body cavity. E. merra had the highest energy content (5.82 kJ g-1) and consumers expressed their belief DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4038/sljas.v18i0.7037 Sri Lanka J. Aquat. Sci. 18 (2013): 27-36

Fishery benefits and stakeholder priorities associated with a coral reef fishery and their implications for management

Abstract Fishers often behave in ways that were neither intended, nor anticipated, by managers or policy makers. This is in part because the factors that motivate and constrain behavior – people's preferences and their social characteristics – are overlooked. We used a case study of coral reef artisanal fishers in Seychelles to assess likely responses to different management approaches by identifying the benefits fishers associate with their coral reef environment, the extent to which they prioritize these benefits, and examining how these priorities relate to their social characteristics. We found that fishers identified a diversity of benefits associated with the fishery but overall fishery, option, bequest, and existence benefits were assigned the highest priorities. Fishers who prioritized fishery benefits, identified as “income”, were different to the fishers who prioritized option and bequest benefits, identified as “a right of access for all” and “for our children” – differences that were also reflected in their social characteristics. Fishers who prioritized option and bequest benefits identified avenues to resolve conflicts and were more likely to take action when a norm was broken – characteristics thought to enable cooperation. There was a clear relationship between fishers’ earnings and the extent to which they prioritized both fishery benefits and option benefits. Specifically, fishers with higher earnings tended to prioritize option whereas fishers with lower earnings tended to prioritize fishery benefits. These findings have important implications for fisheries management decision-making. For example, decentralized approaches, such as fisheries co-management, are only likely to succeed for the group of fishers who demonstrated a high likelihood of cooperation. Due to the relationship between earnings and fishers’ priorities, management that influences fishers’ earnings (e.g. through a tax), must consider the likely influence on fishers’ priorities if it is to avoid unexpected or perverse outcomes.

Protected versus unprotected area with reference to fishes, corals, macro invertebrates, and CPUE in Honda Bay, Palawan

The impact of Sabang Reef Fish Sanctuary in Honda Bay, Palawan was evaluated using fish, coral cover, macro-invertebrates and CPUE as measures for success. Visual census and LIT methods were used for fish, macro invertebrate and coral cover surveys, while administered interview was used to gather information on CPUE. The protection of fish sanctuary has shown its impact to the coral reef fisheries by the improvement in quantity of the resources. Fishes, macro-invertebrates, and hard coral cover inside the Sabang Reef Fish Sanctuary (Binduyan) showed increased in abundance, diversity, and number of commercial species compared to those outside of the sanctuary. This reflects the positive impact that a protected area gained over four years. Results indicated high exploitation rates of resources in the fished areas just outside the sanctuary. Furthermore, as a consequence of improved reef fisheries, more fishermen fishing in areas closest to the sanctuary have increased their catch.

Indicators for assessing the ecological dynamics and sustainability of southern Florida's coral reef and coastal fisheries

Commercial and recreational fisheries target hundreds of fish and shellfish species across the seascape of southern Florida including inshore coastal bays, the flats of barrier islands, coral reefs and offshore pelagic waters. The ecological dynamics and economic sustainability of these valuable fishery resources are key conservation concerns. This study examined two ecological indicators of fishing impacts on exploited populations: (1) the more traditional metric catch per unit of fishing effort (CPUE); and (2) the non-traditional metric average length (L¯) in the exploited life stage of a population. We show that both indicators were closely related to stock productivity via fisheries population dynamics theory, and that either indicator could be used to estimate fishing mortality rates (F). Data requirements are much less stringent for estimating F from the L¯ indicator than CPUE, making it more practical for data-poor situations common to tropical marine fisheries. Using indicator-based estimates of Fˆ within a population dynamic modeling framework enabled an evaluation of fishing impacts on sustainability at both the species and community levels, an important step toward ecosystem-based fisheries assessment and management. A comparison of these approaches applied to the assessment of southern Florida coral reef fisheries suggested that fishing has fundamentally altered the ecological structure of the fish community by depleting the biomass of higher-trophic level carnivores to the extent that the stocks are unsustainable.

Re-estimation and synthesis of coral-reef fishery landings in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands since the 1950s suggests the decline of a common resource

Coral-reef fisheries play a central role in Pacific Island societies for their cultural, subsistence and economic values. Despite their importance, management of coral reef fisheries continues to be hampered by difficulties in estimating accurate fish landings. This study focuses upon both commercial and non-commercial reef-fish landings in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), using existing and new datasets derived from catch-based records and household interviews. We found that previous estimations of CNMI’s non-commercial reef-fish landings were rooted in a common misinterpretation of a key historical study that led to very low reported contributions from the non-commercial reef-fishing sector. Present evidence introduced from socioeconomic surveys suggested that non-commercial fisheries were between five and nine times commercial counterparts in the mid-2000s. Further, we introduce new commercial landing datasets based upon required reporting to CNMI’s Nutritional Assistance Program that appeared to offer improved estimates of reef-fish landings compared with an existing voluntary reporting system that has been in place since the late 1970s. Using an influential anchor point in the 1950s, we synthesize that modern reef-fish landings in CNMI are, at best, similar to those conservatively estimated for the past, with more likely scenarios suggesting a 39–73 % decline since the 1950s. These findings are consistent with a body of literature suggesting reduced catch success through time and negative impacts to coral reefs in proximity to population centers. Ongoing data collection improvements are needed to ensure accurate assessments of CNMI’s coral-reef fishery and sound fisheries policies.

Adapting to the impacts of global change on an artisanal coral reef fishery

When assessing future changes in fishing, research has focused on changes in the availability of the resource. Fishers' behaviour, however, also defines fishing activity, and is susceptible not only to changes in weather but also to changes in the economy, which can be faster and more ubiquitous. Using a novel modelling approach and spatially explicit predictors we identified the current drivers of artisanal fishing activity and predicted how it is likely to change in 2025 and 2035 under two climate and two economic scenarios. The model is effective at explaining the activity of fishers (AUC=0.84) and suggests that economic variables overwhelm the importance of climate variables in influencing the decisions of fishers in our case study area (Utila, Honduras). Although future changes in the overall incidence of fishing activity are modest, decreases in the number of accessible fishing grounds with projected increases in fuel prices will increase localised fishing effort depleting fish resources near the port. Compelling adaptation strategies in the area require the intervention of the market chain to make the sale price of fish more responsive to fuel price fluctuations and changes in fishing behaviour to improve fuel efficiency, including the revival of traditional ways of fishing.

Market integration and its relation to income distribution and inequality among fishers and traders: The case of two small-scale Kenyan reef fisheries

This study, carried out in five fishing communities along the Kenyan coast, examined fisheries-derived income of fishers and traders in two different invertebrate fisheries (octopus and sea cucumber) and tested if differences in global market integration of these two products could explain differences in income inequalities among actors involved in the two fisheries. The structure of the value chains was mapped, differences in income between fishers and traders tested, and income inequalities among actors in each fishery examined. Although the octopus fishery included a greater diversity of actors and thereby provides income to a larger group of people, income inequality in this fishery was higher among fishers and traders than in the sea cucumber fishery. Thus, the often cited relationship between increasing market integration and income inequality may require a re-evaluation and a more nuanced treatment.

Depth Refuge and the Impacts of SCUBA Spearfishing on Coral Reef Fishes

In recent decades, spearfishing with SCUBA has emerged as an efficient method for targeting reef fish in deeper waters. However, deeper waters are increasingly recognised as a potential source of refuge that may help sustain fishery resources. We used a combination of historical catch data over a 20-year time period and fishery-independent surveys to investigate the effects of SCUBA spearfishing on coral reef fish populations in the southern Mariana Islands. Two jurisdictions were studied; Guam, where SCUBA spearfishing is practiced, and the nearby Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), where SCUBA spearfishing has been banned since 2003. Fishery-independent data were collected using baited remote underwater stereo-video systems (stereo-BRUVs) stratified by depth, marine protected area status and jurisdiction. Herbivores (primary consumers) dominated spearfishing catches, with parrotfish (scarines) and surgeonfish/unicornfish (acanthurids) the main groups harvested. However, the large, endangered humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) was the main species by weight landed by SCUBA spearfishers. SCUBA spearfishing was associated with declining size of scarines over time and catches shifting from a dominance of large parrotfishes to a mixed assemblage with increasing proportions of acanthurids. Comparisons between Guam and the nearby CNMI revealed differences in the assemblage of fished species and also greater size of scarines and acanthurids in deep water where SCUBA fishing is banned. These results suggest that SCUBA spearfishing impacts reef fish populations and that the restriction of this fishing method will ensure refuge for fish populations in deeper waters. We recommend a ban on SCUBA spearfishing to preserve or aid the recovery of large, functionally important coral reef species and to improve the sustainability of coral reef fisheries.

Time preferences and the management of coral reef fisheries

To investigate a potential relationship between financial and marine resource use decisions, we conducted a time preference experiment with 153 fishers and 197 SCUBA divers on Curaçao and Bonaire. The experiment was part of a socioeconomic survey wherein interviewees were asked about their fishing and diving practices, views on fish population and coral reef health, and preferred marine resource management approaches. We use a βδ-model to identify discounting and present bias. Divers had a mean individual discount factor (IDF) of 0.91, significantly higher than fishers' mean of 0.82. Fishers and divers had similar distributions of IDFs and present bias; overall 66% of interviewees were non-biased, 22% future-biased, and 12% present-biased. IDFs and present bias were able to predict management preferences after controlling for demographic factors. However, the effect of discount factors is unique to divers, and the effect of present bias is concentrated among fishers on Curaçao. Differences in time preferences between fishers and divers should be considered when developing management strategies. Transfer payments from the dive industry could facilitate a transition to sustainable fishing practices. Establishing property rights alone may not be sufficient for ensuring sustainability if fishers are present-biased and greatly discount the future.

A framework for mapping small-scale coastal fisheries using fishers' knowledge

Abstract Collecting spatial information on fisheries catch and effort is essential to understanding the spatial processes of exploited population dynamics and to manage heterogeneously distributed resources and uses. The use of fishers' knowledge through geographical information systems (GISs) is increasingly considered as a promising source of local information on small-scale coastal fisheries. In this paper we describe the first framework for mapping entire small-scale coastal fisheries using fishers' knowledge on catch size and fishing effort. Four mangrove and coral reef fisheries targeting invertebrates or finfish in New Caledonia (southwest Pacific) were mapped following a five-step framework: (i) stratified random sampling of regular fishers; (ii) collection of fishers' knowledge of fishing areas, fishing effort, and catch size through map-based interviews; (iii) data integration into a spatial geodatabase; (iv) statistical extrapolation of fisher data to the fishery scale; and (v) mapping of catch, effort, and catch per unit effort (CPUE) for each fishery using a GIS overlay procedure. We found evidence that fishers' knowledge supplied precise and accurate quantitative and spatial information on catch size, fishing effort and CPUE for entire fisheries. Fisheries maps captured the fine-scale spatial distribution of fishing activities in a variety of ways according to target taxa, gear type, and home ports. Applications include area-based marine conservation planning and fishery monitoring, management, and governance. This integrated framework can be generalized to a large range of data-poor coastal and inland small-scale fisheries.

Evaluation of management strategies in Ningaloo Marine Park, Western Australia

The spatial, multi-species nature of coral reef fisheries makes them notoriously difficult to manage. We have developed a simulation modelling approach to examine the effect of management options on the recreational fishery of Ningaloo Reef in Western Australia, that targets Spangled Emperor (Lethrinus nebulosus) model. Results show the effects of historical fishing mortality on the depletion of Spangled Emperor and the potential biological and social effects of changes in the sanctuary zones under a range of scenarios. The inherent trade-offs between the ecological and social objectives identified by the stakeholders are characterised. Some management strategies clearly perform better than others with respect to the social objectives pursued in the fishery, although none manages to improve its ecological status.

Increasing ocean temperatures reduce activity patterns of a large commercially important coral reef fish

Large-bodied fish are critical for sustaining coral reef fisheries, but little is known about the vulnerability of these fish to global warming. This study examined the effects of elevated temperatures on the movement and activity patterns of the common coral trout Plectropomus leopardus (Serranidae), which is an important fishery species in tropical Australia and throughout the Indo West-Pacific. Adult fish were collected from two locations on Australia's Great Barrier Reef (23°S and 14°S) and maintained at one of four temperatures (24, 27, 30, 33 °C). Following >4 weeks acclimation, the spontaneous swimming speeds and activity patterns of individuals were recorded over a period of 12 days. At 24-27 °C, spontaneous swimming speeds of common coral trout were 0.43-0.45 body lengths per second (bls(-1)), but dropped sharply to 0.29 bls(-1) at 30 °C and 0.25 bls(-1) at 33 °C. Concurrently, individuals spent 9.3-10.6% of their time resting motionless on the bottom at 24-27 °C, but this behaviour increased to 14.0% at 30 °C and 20.0% of the time at 33 °C (mean ± SE). The impact of temperature was greatest for smaller individuals (<45 cm TL), showing significant changes to swimming speeds across every temperature tested, while medium (45-55 cm TL) and large individuals (>55 cm TL) were first affected by 30 °C and 33 °C, respectively. Importantly, there was some indication that populations can adapt to elevated temperature if presented with adequate time, as the high-latitude population decreased significantly in swimming speeds at both 30 °C and 33 °C, while the low-latitude population only showed significant reductions at 33 °C. Given that movement and activity patterns of large mobile species are directly related to prey encounter rates, ability to capture prey and avoid predators, any reductions in activity patterns are likely to reduce overall foraging and energy intake, limit the energy available for growth and reproduction, and affect the fitness and survival of individuals and populations.

Trophic ecology of large predatory reef fishes: energy pathways, trophic level, and implications for fisheries in a changing climate

Large predatory fishes are disproportionately targeted by reef fisheries, but little is known about their trophic ecology, which inhibits understanding of community dynamics and the potential effects of climate change. In this study, stable isotope analyses were used to infer trophic ecology of a guild of large predatory fishes that are targeted by fisheries on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Each of four focal predators (Plectropomus leopardus, Plectropomus maculatus, Lethrinus miniatus and Lutjanus carponotatus) was found to have a distinct isotopic signature in terms of δ13C and δ15N. A two-source mixing model (benthic reef-based versus pelagic) indicated that P. leopardus and L. miniatus derive the majority (72 and 62 %, respectively) of their production from planktonic sources, while P. maculatus and L. carponotatus derive the majority (89 and 74 %, respectively) of their production from benthic reef-based sources. This indicates that planktonic production is important for sustaining key species in reef fisheries and highlights the need for a whole-ecosystem approach to fisheries management. Unexpectedly, there was little isotopic niche overlap between three of four focal predators, suggesting that inter-specific competition for prey may be low or absent. δ15Nitrogen indicated that the closely related P. leopardus and P. maculatus are apex predators (trophic level > 4), while δ13C indicated that each species has a different diet and degree of trophic specialisation. In view of these divergent trophic ecologies, each of the four focal predators (and the associated fisheries) are anticipated to be differentially affected by climate-induced disturbances. Thus, the results presented herein provide a useful starting point for precautionary management of exploited predator populations in a changing climate.

Time preference of small-scale fishers in open access and traditionally managed reef fisheries

Individuals with high discount rates are likely not partial to conservation because they are unwilling to sacrifice short term benefits for potentially higher gains in the future. Many reef fisheries worldwide are open access, and fishers under open access systems are theorized to discount the future at an infinite rate. In contrast, fishers in a customary managed fishery can be expected to be more long term oriented, and thus possibly have lower discount rates. The present study tests this hypothesis by eliciting the discount rates of fishers in an open access small-scale reef fishery, and compares these rates to those of fishers in a customary managed reef fishery. Results indicate that fishers in both open access and traditionally managed reef fisheries have high annual discount rates that are on average over 200%. Contrary to expectations, fishers under an open access system are not associated with higher discount rates compared to customary management. It also appears that a larger proportion of open access fishers are more long-term oriented than those in the customary managed fishery, which is encouraging for the future conservation and sustainability of open access fisheries resources.

Anthropogenic impacts on coral reefs and their effect on fishery of Kilwa District, Tanzania

Tanzanian fishing coastal communities live on fishing activities as one their major economic activities, practicing fishing on shallow coral reefs areas whereby about 70% of fishery is artisanal. Improper use and overexploitation of fishery resources have resulted in damaging the coral reefs and the subsequent low quality catches. This study aimed at examining the impacts of coral reef fishery decline on rural livelihoods with an emphasis on food insecurity, alternative capabilities and activities on coastal communities of Kilwa district, Tanzania. Data collection methodology included household questionnaire survey, key informant interviews, participant observation and photographing. The survey was based on a sample of 90 households, randomly selected from three villages. The findings attest for a gradual reduction in fish catches over time, brought about by natural and anthropogenic impacts. Overfishing, use of illegal and destructive fishing methods, as well as extreme weather conditions, all threaten the sustainability of marine resources, particularly coral reef fishery that constitutes an important source of food and livelihood. Following the results and as a way of lessen the current pressure on marine resources and diversifying livelihood capabilities we recommend introduction of mariculture and modern farming technologies especially on green vegetables on farms that can potentially be irrigated. The study further recommends establishment of a marine protected area and; in addition, the need to promote educational programs on environmental and resources uses as well as application of active restoration protocols for damaged coral reefs. Key words : Songo songo, Kivinje, Songo mnara, livelihoods, coral bleaching

Trap modification opens new gates to achieve sustainable coral reef fisheries

ABSTRACTInnovative strategies are needed to escape the social‐ecological poverty that so frequently emerges from persistent overfishing of coral reef resources.This study focuses on fishing gear selectivity and its potential to increase ecosystem health and fisheries productivity without compromising the catch of profitable species.An investigation into the effects of an escape gap (3 cm × 30 cm) modification to the traditional African basket trap on total catch biomass, catch composition and monetary value in two locations with different historical levels of fishing was undertaken.Gated traps caught less low‐value fish (juveniles and narrow‐bodied coral reef species) while increasing the catch of high‐ and medium‐value fish (wider‐bodied commercially valuable species). The total monetary value of the gated trap catches was maintained in a heavily fished environment, while it increased in the less fisheries‐depleted area.For the most important local commercial species, the African white‐spotted rabbitfish (Siganus sutor), the gated traps significantly increased the mean length (by 12%) and weight (by 32%) of capture and decreased the proportion of catch under length at first maturity (Lmat) from 56% (traditional traps) to 25% (gated traps).Escape gaps have shown the potential to affect the structure of the fishery and ecosystem by enhancing the number of mature individuals, increasing reef biodiversity and promoting functionally diverse reef fish communities without compromising fisher's revenues. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.