Reef Fisheries Research Articles

Climate Change Affects Multiple Coral Reef Fisheries Ecosystem Services

ABSTRACTCoral reef fisheries support livelihoods and provide an affordable source of essential dietary nutrients to coastal people. However, climate‐driven coral bleaching is dramatically altering reef habitats and changing reef fish composition, diversity, and productivity. We used data from fisheries independent surveys and artisanal trap landings to explore how reefs with different responses to coral bleaching differed in habitat configurations, fisheries catch rates, economic returns, and nutritional content. Coral‐associated fishes supported the highest catch rates, greatest species diversity, highest rates of economic returns for fishers, and a wide price range for consumers. Macroalgae‐associated fishes supported the greatest overall fisheries yields, which indicated higher fishery dependence on these habitats. Nutrient content was high in catches across all habitats, but concentrations varied by nutrient, which suggested that fishing across a range of reef habitats should provide the greatest variety of nutrients to coastal communities.

Shellfishing, sea levels, and the earliest Native American villages (5000–3800 yrs. BP) of the South Atlantic Coast of the U.S

Shell ring archaeological sites are one of the most visible site types along the lower South Atlantic Coast of the United States. These cultural sites are large, circular to arcuate piles of mollusk shells with some reaching over three meters in elevation and over 100 m in diameter. They are comprised largely of mollusk shells (e.g., Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica), but also contain early pottery, nonhuman faunal remains, and other artifacts. Our work establishes that they represent the earliest widespread Native American villages occupied year-round in the Eastern Woodlands of North America. Significantly, our results from sea-level modelling and isotope geochemistry on mollusks establish that the inhabitants of these earliest villages (ca. 5000–3800 yrs. BP) lived within a fluctuating coastal environment, harvested certain resources year-round, and targeted diverse habitats across the estuaries. Both the growth and decline of these earliest villages are associated with a concomitant rise and lowering of sea level that impacted the productivity of the oyster reef fishery along the South Atlantic Coast. Despite these large-scale environmental changes, this research indicates that Native American fishing villages persisted along the coast for over 1000 years.

Sustainable-use marine protected areas to improve human nutrition

Coral reef fisheries are a vital source of nutrients for thousands of nutritionally vulnerable coastal communities around the world. Marine protected areas are regions of the ocean designed to preserve or rehabilitate marine ecosystems and thereby increase reef fish biomass. Here, we evaluate the potential effects of expanding a subset of marine protected areas that allow some level of fishing within their borders (sustainable-use MPAs) to improve the nutrition of coastal communities. We estimate that, depending on site characteristics, expanding sustainable-use MPAs could increase catch by up to 20%, which could help prevent 0.3-2.85 million cases of inadequate micronutrient intake in coral reef nations. Our study highlights the potential add-on nutritional benefits of expanding sustainable-use MPAs in coral reef regions and pinpoints locations with the greatest potential to reduce inadequate micronutrient intake level. These findings provide critical knowledge given international momentum to cover 30% of the ocean with MPAs by 2030 and eradicate malnutrition in all its forms.

“Akili zetu ziwe moja / Let our minds be one”: Emergent strategy for adapting to seafood insecurity in coastal Kenyan fishing communities

Small-scale fisheries provide food sovereignty and capital for millions globally. However, coastal Kenyan communities who harvest reef fishery resources are often still food insecure, especially due to the detrimental effects of climate change and overfishing in their communities. This study aims to understand the environmental perceptions and priorities of fishing families in Kilifi County, Kenya, and how these relate to both food security and sustainable development policy. We rely on qualitative methods including interviews with household caregivers from 42 fishing families to provide insights not only on fishery sustainability but also on the additional aspects of reproductive labor related to fish food security, including the food securing aspects of availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability. Our findings highlight the complex challenges that environmental change places on families in this situation: lack of fish availability, seasonal food inaccessibility, shifting baselines, and experiences of loss in the food system are markedly a prevalent result. Despite these struggles, we see emergent strategies to address food needs unfold in a variety of resilient and opportunistic ways, including adaptation, trust, and multimodal networks of support. Further policy support must be given to communities to practice food sovereignty in their own contexts, especially as climate changes continue and these strategies become salient adaptive practices elsewhere.

Practice of Territorial Use Rights in Fisheries in Coastal Fishery Management in China: A Case Study of the Island Reefs Fishery Lease Policy from Shengsi County in Zhejiang Province

Coastal fisheries are vital for food supply, employment, and social stability. However, overfishing is a common problem, often attributed to open access. Territorial Use Rights in Fisheries (TURFs) have gained popularity as a tool to improve the sustainability of coastal fisheries, but research on TURFs in China is limited. This paper examines the island reef fishery lease policy implemented in Shengsi County, Zhejiang Province, within the Ma’an Islands National Marine Special Reserve. The policy leases the use of island reefs to a collective, aiming to address overfishing and resource degradation by establishing fishing area boundaries and limiting the number of users and usage time. Technically, it is an application of TURFs, and it represents a shift from traditional fishing licenses to collective compliance. This experience has disrupted the existing top–down fishery governance structure and signifies a transition to a rights-based fishery management system in China. Through a comprehensive investigation and analysis of the policy’s implementation, this research identifies the factors contributing to its flaws. These include the inadequate provision of national and local government policies, insufficient support for policy implementation from fishery management authorities, and the limited involvement of fishermen’s organizations. To enhance coastal fishery management, we propose that the Chinese government should build upon existing foundations by clarifying fishing rights through central and local laws and policies. Additionally, there is a need to strengthen data monitoring of coastal fisheries, conduct multidisciplinary research to improve the allocation mechanism of fishing rights, adopt diverse fishery management approaches to enhance supervision capabilities, establish a collaborative governance mechanism, and foster coordination and cooperation between grassroots fishermen’s organizations and government departments.

An evaluation tool for assessing coral restoration efforts

The ever-increasing need for coral restoration as a tool available to mitigate reef declines and aid in the recovery of lost ecosystem services requires improving restoration performance over time through an adaptive management framework to evaluate the status of restoration programs using uniform, consistent metrics. An evaluation tool, presented herein, allows restoration practitioners and managers to self-evaluate the robustness of each project and identify successful metrics, those metrics that need special attention, and changes to restoration strategies that can improve performance and aid recovery. This tool is designed to allow programs to track the progress of each key metric over time to assist in improving upon successes and learning from failures. The metrics within this restoration evaluation tool focus on published best-management practices and have resulted from extensive research conducted by restoration experts over the past 20 years. Common metrics of growth and survival are included, in addition to parameters vital to the operational success of restoration programs, such as coral reproduction, recruitment of associated reef taxa, increasing habitat for reef fisheries, and improving overall reef habitat. Five Caribbean restoration programs, each with at least 15 years of restoration experience, are presented as case studies. Each program was evaluated based on six restoration categories including: field-based nurseries, outplantings, programmatic management, education and outreach, event-driven restoration, and socioeconomic restoration. Category-specific metrics were scored with a binary scoring system and summarized using a stop-light indicator framework, where the resulting color/score indicates the operations tatus of the different program components (Scores >75% = green/successful; 50–74.9% = light green > yellow > orange/intermediate; <49.9% = red/sub-optimal). Composite scores may be used to evaluate individual projects, overall restoration programs, or even large-scale state of regional restoration plans. Overall, four of the five programs scored >75% indicating most of these programs are performing well, are versatile, well managed, and sustainable. Outside of environmental factors and large-scale disturbance events, many programs described resource limitations, including funding and staffing, as reasons for scoring low on some metrics. A holistic evaluation rubric incorporated into programmatic self-assessment can ensure that restoration projects and programs are working towards success and sustainability.

Spatiotemporal dynamics of Atlantic reef fishes off the southeastern U.S. coast

AbstractUnderstanding the spatiotemporal dynamics of fish species is a central concern in fish ecology and crucial for guiding management and conservation efforts. We constructed a joint species distribution model (JSDM) to simultaneously estimate the spatiotemporal distributions and densities for 21 reef fish species in the southeastern United States (SEUS). The model separately estimates encounter probability and positive density, and accounts for unobserved spatial and spatiotemporal variation using latent factors, where the correlations among species are induced. We applied the model to video data collected from a large‐scale, fishery independent survey. A clustering method was applied to the results of the JSDM to group species based on spatial and spatiotemporal synchrony in encounter probability and positive density. We found strong spatial associations among most of the reef fish species. However, species did exhibit differences in occupied habitat that varied with latitude and/or depth. Within their area of occupied habitat, almost all the species share similar spatial pattern of average density. However, for some species, annual distributions were less correlated with their expected average distributions perhaps due to differing responses to underlying spatiotemporal drivers. Some species show significant declines in abundance, for example, black sea bass, red porgy, and blueline tilefish, while a small number of species showed evidence of shifts in distribution, for example, black sea bass. The findings suggest that spatiotemporal management strategies may be of limited utility for reducing bycatch in these highly mixed reef fisheries due to high spatial correlations in occupied habitat and spatial patterns in density. Species‐specific responses to environmental change may also influence the spatiotemporal structure of reef assemblages. This work suggests management attention is needed for some of the lesser known species as they are showing declining trends in abundance.

Temporal changes in a small-scale artisanal reef fishery in Brazil: Coastal development and its impacts

Small-scale artisanal fisheries perform great economic, social, cultural, and ecological roles worldwide. For fishers in adverse scenarios, resorting to alternatives such sustainable tourism is widely proposed. In this study, we investigate the long-term sustainability (1998–2020) of a small-scale artisanal fishery in Northeast Brazil, where transformations including intense coastal development, the establishment of a marine protected area, and the expansion of tourism occurred in addition to the region’s economic growth and the global trend of technological advancements. This study aims to understand how this fishery has changed over the last two decades while investigating a range of possible threats for its survival. Results demonstrated the impacts of technological innovation on fishing practices, such as the use of spearguns and small outboard motors; an increase in opportunistic fishing associated with a growing coastal population; fading of certain traditional fishing practices that often require fishers with greater experience; a shift for a fishery made up of more opportunistic amateur fishers, as artisanal, small-scale fishers switched to other income sources such as tourism. Although there are benefits from those transformations, which include the possibility of an alternative source of income and the use of technology, fisheries traditions have been affected negatively in terms of social and cultural aspects, and traditional fishing communities are left vulnerable in the absence of national fishery monitoring programs, reliable fishing data, and institutional instability. Local initiatives and empowerment of traditional fishing communities to strengthen fisher identity and participation in fisheries policy decision-making should be strongly encouraged.

Nutrition contributions of coral reef fisheries not enhanced by capture of small fish

Recent policy recommendations have highlighted the nutritional benefits of fisheries that capture small finfish species. Small fish, particularly those that feed in the pelagic zone, tend to be more nutrient dense than larger species, with increased concentrations of calcium, zinc, and omega-3 fatty acids. However, capturing fish below some recommended size limit (i.e., length at first maturity = Lmat) in coral reefs is frequently considered to be unsustainable and associated with reduced yields and losses of ecosystem functions. To evaluate the potential effects of fish body size, we analyzed nutrient concentrations of 424 demersal and pelagic finfish species reported from Western Indian Ocean artisanal fisheries. We found that length and food source are associated with only small differences in nutrient density in the artisanal catches of this region (≤7% of a child's daily requirement in most cases). We also analyzed 20 years of catch monitoring data from Kenya, where many of the common species have Lmat ∼20–25 cm, to test the potential benefits and tradeoffs of capturing small fishes. Small capture sizes were associated with low yields and sexually immature catches with a mean length of 15 cm resulting in 38% lower catch per unit effort, 37% lower nutrient yield, and a 22% lower maturity index compared to a mean body length of 30 cm. Catches of undersized fish were not associated with substantial increases or decreases in nutrient content relative to human nutritional requirements. Thus, coral reef artisanal fisheries should target moderate to large fishes (>20 cm) to maximize overall yield, nutrient yield, and sustainability.

Complexities of reef fisheries in Brazil: a retrospective and functional approach

Complexities of reef fisheries in Brazil: a retrospective and functional approach

Study of the coastal reef fishery pressure in a South Pacific Island (Bora-Bora, French Polynesia)

In the context of the general overexploitation of South Pacific reef fisheries, there is a global push to precisely define fishery parameters such as fishing effort, annual landings, and exploitation levels. In Bora-Bora, several surveys were performed to define the fishing grounds and the fishing effort of the reef fishery for the first time. Maps of the fishing grounds under different fishing pressures were created for the Bora-Bora reef fishery. The average fishing effort throughout the lagoon was 40 trips week−1 km−2. Annual landings were estimated following two different methods: school participatory surveys and landing based on the catch per unit effort. These estimations were used to determine that the maximum sustainable yield of the island's fisheries was 6.5 tons km−2 year−1. the reported annual yield in 2022 was 5.35 tons km−2 year−1, under the estimated maximum sustainable yield. The level of exploitation of the fisheries was also estimated based on the catch size composition of the ten most fished species. This revealed that fishing is responsible for more than 50% of fish mortality in six of the ten studied species, and that catch length could be increased to optimize both catches and biomass. Overall, the Bora-Bora reef fishery may be experiencing growth overfishing (i.e., the catching of fish that are too small to maximise biological sustainability and economical yield), which can endanger stock recruitment in the future if no actions are taken.

Modeling the effects of selectively fishing key functional groups of herbivores on coral resilience

AbstractMounting evidence suggests that fishing can be a major driver of coral‐to‐macroalgae regime shifts on tropical reefs. In many small‐scale coral reef fisheries, fishers target herbivorous fishes, which can weaken coral resilience via reduced herbivory on macroalgae that then outcompete corals. Previous models that explored the effects of harvesting herbivores revealed hysteresis in the herbivory–benthic state relationship that results in bistability of coral‐ and macroalgae‐dominated states over some levels of fishing pressure, which has been supported by empirical evidence. However, past models have not accounted for the functional differences among herbivores or how fisher selectivity for different herbivore functional groups may alter the benthic dynamics and resilience. Here, we use a dynamic model that links differential fishing on two key herbivore functional groups to the outcome of competitive dynamics between coral and macroalgae. We show that reef state depends not only on the level of fishing but also on the types of herbivores targeted by fishers. Selectively fishing browsing herbivores that are capable of consuming mature macroalgae (e.g., unicornfish) increases precariousness of the coral state by moving the system close to the coral‐to‐macroalgae tipping point. By contrast, selectively harvesting grazing herbivores that are only capable of preventing macroalgae from becoming established (e.g., parrotfishes) can increase catch yields substantially more before the tipping point is reached. However, this lower precariousness with increasing fishing effort comes at the cost of increasing the range of fishing effort over which coral and macroalgae are bistable; increasing hysteresis makes a regime shift triggered by a disturbance more difficult or impractical to reverse. Our results suggest that management strategies for small‐scale coral reef fisheries should consider how functional differences among harvested herbivores coupled with fisher selectivity influence benthic dynamics in light of the trade‐off between tipping point precariousness and coral recovery dynamics following large disturbances.

Socio-ecological status of marine ornamental reef fishery in Trincomalee, Sri Lanka - An application of strategic SWOT analysis

The present study elucidates the socio-ecological status of the marine ornamental reef fish (MORF) fishery in Trincomalee, Sri Lanka, through strategic SWOT analysis. Data were collected through interviews with full-time fishers (n = 49) fishing at Pulmodai, Sampur, and Kuchchaweli reef sites, focus group discussions (n = 3), and participant observations during 2019–2020. Data gathered in-situ were further investigated in detail, analyzed, and grouped into attributes of SWOT analysis. Results revealed higher fishing income (90–900 USD) by 91.84% of respondents as the major strength of the fishery, followed by low production costs (24–240 USD), a low labor force, and others. Seasonality of the fishery, multiple ownership of reefs, and the limited number of fishing hours (4-6 hrs.) were the main weaknesses identified in the system. High global demand, the fish-to-order concept, and the intervention of local buyers were the major opportunities for the fishery. Long market chains, bopyrid isopod infection on Pacific cleaner shrimp, and poor monitoring systems were the major threats to the industry. The MORF fishery in Trincomalee, Sri Lanka, results in higher living standards for fisher communities and empowers them. The present study has policy implications for the MORF fishery and the long-term sustainability of the industry.

Can the global marine aquarium trade (MAT) be a model for sustainable coral reef fisheries?

Globally, 6 million coral reef fishers provide ~25% of emergent countries' catch, but species have low value. The marine aquarium trade (MAT) targets high-value biodiversity, but missing data amplify draconian governance and demand for international prohibition. To stimulate sustainability and reef conservation investment, we generate a fiscal baseline using the first global analysis of numbers, diversity, and biomass of MAT-traded organisms. Each year, ~55 million organisms worth US$2.15 billion at retail are traded comparable with major fisheries, e.g., tuna. A sustainable MAT also requires overexploitation assessments. We identify 25 species/genera with "Extremely High" risk ratios and place the Indonesian and Sulu-Celebes Seas in the highest exploitation category. Despite predicted hobbyist number increases, unabated reef degradation and low governance will transform the MAT into an aquaculture-dominated industry decoupled from communities (i.e., culture located in importing countries). A "MAT-positive" future requires evidence-based management/governance, consumer education, and sustainable practice incentivization but can address the biodiversity and social and economic inequality crises.

Estimating and comparing the direct economic contributions of reef fisheries and tourism in the Asia-Pacific

Global estimates of the economic value of coral reefs have been made using benefit transfer and other valuation methods, but it is unclear whether these estimates match actualized values (e.g. market values of reef fish and reef tourism) or how they scale to specific regions. Here we empirically estimated the (actualized) direct economic contribution of fishing and tourism on coral reefs (i.e., direct use values) in the Asia-Pacific (APAC) region, which includes a majority (∼80%) of the global reef area. We found that coral reefs in the APAC region directly contributed $25 billion annually on average over the years 2008–2012 to the region’s economy from fishing and tourism alone. The majority of direct economic contributions (US$19.5 billion) was provided by reef tourism, while the remainder was divided between artisanal (US$2.4 billion) and industrial (US$3.2 billion) fisheries. The average economic productivity of coral reefs was estimated at US$112,000 per square kilometer of coral reef, although there were large deviations between countries in terms of economic utilization of their reefs. Our findings suggest that a highly-cited prior estimate of the global potential value of coral reefs (Cesar et al., 2003) is likely a significant underestimation of actual economic contributions. We discuss some of the implications for reef management. Most notably, our results indicate that the non-consumptive direct use of reef resources provide substantially more economic benefits than consumptive uses.

The Growth of Capture Fisheries in Pamekasan Regency, Madura Island

"Groupers, snappers, emperors, and fusiliers are important reef fisheries both economically and ecologically, particularly in Indonesia and the Asian region. However, in some areas, they are still being overfished, and their stocks appear to be declining as a result." As a result, it is critical to comprehend their viewpoint. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the fishery output of some reef fish species in “Indonesia's Fisheries Management Area (FMA) 715” based on life history and spawning potential. Pamekasan Regency should implement an effective capture fisheries strategy to create jobs, ensure food security, and promote economic development. Pamekasan Regency is located along the shore of the Indonesian island of Mathura. The goal of this study was to design a capture fisheries development strategy for Pamegasan Regency. The SPSS matrix analysis methods were employed. This study drew on a wide range of data sources, including statistical data, surveys, and interviews. Key individuals were interviewed, and 30 fishermen were polled. Overfishing was discovered in the waters for Phamegasan Regency, according to the research. Diversification of fishermen owned by families enterprises, establishment of fish auction locations, oversight of fishing gear, expansion of the fish processing industry, warming mitigation, fishing resource studies, extension, and coastal community expansion are some of the capture fisheries growth methods we advocate. These strategies' implementation can be used as a subsequent fisheries strategy. The Pamekasan Regency Government should perform more intensive training and exercises to improve the abilities of salt farmers in Pademavu Sub-District, Pamekasan Regency, through the Fishing Service and other related agencies. The goal of this study's result analysis is to acquire an exhaustive overview of the topic without looking to the specific elements of the topic of research. For the statistical analysis, we used SPSS software version 16.this analysised Cronbach's alpha value for the model is 0.999.

Ciguatera poisoning in French Polynesia: A review of the distribution and toxicity of Gambierdiscus spp., and related impacts on food web components and human health

Ciguatera Poisoning (CP) is a seafood poisoning highly prevalent in French Polynesia. This illness results from the consumption of seafood contaminated with ciguatoxins (CTXs) produced by Gambierdiscus, a benthic dinoflagellate. Ciguatera significantly degrades the health and economic well-being of local communities largely dependent on reef fisheries for their subsistence. French Polynesia has been the site of rich and active CP research since the 1960′s. The environmental, toxicological, and epidemiological data obtained in the frame of large-scale field surveys and a country-wide CP case reporting program conducted over the past three decades in the five island groups of French Polynesia are reviewed. Results show toxin production in Gambierdiscus in the natural environment may vary considerably at a temporal and spatial scale, and that several locales clearly represent Gambierdiscus spp. “biodiversity hotspots”. Current data also suggest the “hot” species G. polynesiensis could be the primary source of CTXs in local ciguateric biotopes, pending formal confirmation. The prevalence of ciguatoxic fish and the CTX levels observed in several locales were remarkably high, with herbivores and omnivores often as toxic as carnivores. Results also confirm the strong local influence of Gambierdiscus spp. on the CTX toxin profiles characterized across multiple food web components including in CP-prone marine invertebrates. The statistics, obtained in the frame of a long-term epidemiological surveillance program established in 2007, point towards an apparent decline in the number of CP cases in French Polynesia as a whole; however, incidence rates remain dangerously high in some islands. Several of the challenges and opportunities, most notably those linked to the strong cultural ramifications of CP among local communities, that need to be considered to define effective risk management strategies are addressed.

Trophic distribution of nutrient production in coral reef fisheries.

Coral reef fisheries supply nutritious catch to tropical coastal communities, where the quality of reef seafood is determined by both the rate of biomass production and nutritional value of reef fishes. Yet our understanding of reef fisheries typically uses targets of total reef fish biomass rather than individual growth (i.e. biomass production) and nutrient content (i.e. nutritional value of reef fish), limiting the ability of management to sustain the productivity of nutritious catches. Here, we use modelled growth coefficients and nutrient concentrations to develop a new metric of nutrient productivity of coral reef fishes. We then evaluate this metric with underwater visual surveys of reef fish assemblages from four tropical countries to examine nutrient productivity of reef fish food webs. Species' growth coefficients were associated with nutrients that vary with body size (calcium, iron, selenium and zinc), but not total nutrient density. When integrated with fish abundance data, we find that herbivorous species typically dominate standing biomass, biomass turnover and nutrient production on coral reefs. Such bottom-heavy trophic distributions of nutrients were consistent across gradients of fishing pressure and benthic composition. We conclude that management restrictions that promote sustainability of herbivores and other low trophic-level species can sustain biomass and nutrient production from reef fisheries that is critical to the food security of over 500 million people in the tropics.

Spatial effort displacement in Florida commercial reef fisheries after red tides

Red tides have affected marine and coastal communities for centuries. The effects of red tides on commercial capture fisheries have rarely been evaluated, owing in part to a lack of appropriate data. Leveraging modeled maps of red tide severity, vessel monitoring systems data, and logbook records, we investigated the commercial fisheries impacts of red tide events in Florida during the period 2008–2019. We focused on the bottom longline and vertical line fisheries targeting reef fishes. Red tides were punctuated events peaking at the end of summer, with 2018 and 2019 the most intense years. The total area affected by intense red tides (concentrations> 1,000 cells/L) was 103,483 km2, about the size of the state of Kentucky. Red tides did not have negative effect on fleet-level fisheries metrics such as number of fishing vessels, trips, fishing effort or revenue (generalized mixed effect models, p > 0.5). Fishing effort was, however, displaced from the red tide areas, and fishers avoided areas characterized by intense blooms (zero-inflated negative binomial model, p < 0.001). Follow up of the long-term likely responses of the resource and the catch are needed to fully understand the consequences of red tide events in commercial fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico.

Linking real world fisheries datasets for mapping of revenue from fishing grounds to dependent communities

Mapping the economic value of the ocean is pivotal to understand how marine ecosystems contribute to human well-being and to support fisheries management. We present a framework to analyse fisheries data and map fishing revenues by linking Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) information to logbooks and observer data. We provide a detailed step-by-step methodology and describe different approaches available to fulfill each step, with special notes for the processing of real-world messy data. The framework consists of six processing steps: (1) identifying the target fishery and subsetting VMS data, (2) extracting relevant variables, (3) linking observer and VMS data, (4) identifying fishing activity, (5) linking VMS and logbook data, and (6) extracting derived variables and mapping revenue back to the communities that extracted the resources. Building this framework opens a broad range of applications including marine spatial planning, rapid response analyses, high-resolution stock assessments, and spatially explicit-socioeconomic analyses. We demonstrate the framework in the reef fishery of the Gulf of Mexico, where spatial planning for aquaculture is currently underway.