Reed Beds Research Articles

High Grazing Pressure of Geese Threatens Conservation and Restoration of Reed Belts.

Reed (Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.) beds are important habitat for marsh birds, but are declining throughout Europe. Increasing numbers of the native marsh bird, the Greylag goose (Anser anser L.), are hypothesized to cause reed bed decline and inhibit restoration of reed beds, but data are largely lacking. In this study, we experimentally tested the effect of grazing by Greylag geese on the growth and expansion of reed growing in belts along lake shorelines. After 5 years of protecting reed from grazing with exclosures, reed stems were over 4-fold denser and taller than in the grazed plots. Grazing pressure was intense with 50–100% of the stems being grazed among years in the control plots open to grazing. After 5 years of protection we opened half of the exclosures and the geese immediately grazed almost 100% of the reed stems. Whereas this did not affect the reed stem density, the stem height was strongly reduced and similar to permanently grazed reed. The next year geese were actively chased away by management from mid-March to mid-June, which changed the maximum amount of geese from over 2300 to less than 50. As a result, reed stem density and height increased and the reed belt had recovered over the full 6 m length of the experimental plots. Lastly, we introduced reed plants in an adjacent lake where no reed was growing and geese did visit this area. After two years, the density of the planted reed was six to nine-fold higher and significantly taller in exclosures compared to control plots where geese had access to the reed plants. We conclude that there is a conservation dilemma regarding how to preserve and restore reed belts in the presence of high densities of Greylag geese as conservation of both reed belts and high goose numbers seems infeasible. We suggest that there are three possible solutions for this dilemma: (1) effects of the geese can be mediated by goose population management, (2) the robustness of the reed marshes can be increased, and (3) at the landscape level, spatial planning can be used to configure landscapes with large reed bed reserves surrounded by unmown, unfertilized meadows.

Opportunistic Stopovers of Willow Warblers Phylloscopus trochilus in a Reed Bed Area at the Bay of Biscay During Autumn Migration

During migration, birds often need to gain large fuel loads, especially if they must cross large geographic barriers with poor or absent fuelling opportunities. The Willow Warbler is a songbird associated with woodland that also opportunistically exploits other habitat types, such as reed beds, allowing it to fuel quickly. Reed beds along the coast of the Bay of Biscay constitute potentially targeted fuelling sites for birds moving from northern Europe to Africa in autumn. Using data obtained from a ringing station, we tested to what extent these coastal sites are opportunistically used by Willow Warblers. The study was carried out in a reed bed area at Txingudi marshlands, one of the main wetlands at the Bay of Biscay in northern Iberia. We found that when Willow Warblers were more abundant, that birds deposited fuel more quickly, and that annual mean fuel load was correlated with the number of captures, suggesting opportunistic stopover exploitation.

Modelling heights of sparse aquatic reed (Phragmites australis) using Structure from Motion point clouds derived from Rotary- and Fixed-Wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) data

Aquatic reed beds consisting of Phragmites australis play an important role in lake ecosystems. Digital Elevation Models (DEM) provide essential information in identifying and quantifying these stocks. This study modelled sparse aquatic reed beds with aerial images collected from Rotary (RW) and Fixed Wing (FW) Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) by the same imaging system. Image processing was executed in a Structure from Motion (SfM) environment and based on bundle adjustment. The DEMs were referenced with Ground Control Points (GCPs) and validated with independent Reference Points (RPs) of heights from reed and flat surfaces. Root Mean Squared (RMS) reprojection error showed that imagery taken with FW could be better aligned than the RW dataset. Quality assessment proved that RW gathers sharper data and lowers image blur resulting in slightly more accurate DEM, while FW showed better area coverage. The results from both configurations proved the efficiency of the methodology in deriving diagnostic relevant features for monitoring sparse aquatic reed beds.

Contaminations of Soil and Two Capsicum annuum Generations Irrigated by Reused Urban Wastewater Treated by Different Reed Beds.

Background: In order to save potable water, this study aims to evaluate the contamination of soil and Capsicum annuum L. (chilli) watered with urban wastewater (sewage) pre-treated by various wetland systems. Methods: The appropriateness of wetland outflow for irrigation when applying reused wastewater with high contamination of minerals and pathogens was assessed. The impact of wastewaters pre-treated by various wetlands on soil and harvest was tested in terms of mineral and biological contamination risk. Results: The wetlands met the standards for irrigation water for most water quality variables. However, the thresholds for key water quality parameters were significantly (p < 0.05) exceeded. The highest values for total coliforms, ammonium-nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were 157,072 CFU/100 mL, 8.5 mg/L, 5.0 mg/L, and 7.0 mg/L, respectively. The harvest was moderately polluted only by zinc according to vegetable quality standards (threshold of 50 mg/kg). Zinc concentrations for Filters 2, 4, 6, 7 and 8 were 35.8, 60.6, 65.1, 65.5 and 53.2 mg/kg, respectively. No bacterial contamination was detected. Conclusions: Treatment of domestic wastewater applying constructed wetlands and subsequent recycling of the treated wastewater for irrigation of crops is a good substitute to the traditional application of drinking water for irrigation purposes.

Spatial distribution of pharmaceuticals in conventional wastewater treatment plant with Sludge Treatment Reed Beds technology

Pharmaceutical residues are an emerging environmental problem. It is strongly confirmed that pharmaceuticals are present in soils and environmental waters (surface, marine and even groundwater), and that wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents are the main source of pharmaceuticals in the watershed. The aim of this study was to recognize the spatial distribution and seasonal changes of selected pharmaceuticals in conventional WWTP with Sludge Treatment Reed Beds (STRBs) technology used for dewatering and stabilization of sewage sludge, because these systems have never been studied in terms of pharmaceuticals distribution or removal potential.The research was conducted in conventional WWTP in Gniewino, where raw wastewater was treated using mechanical, biological and chemical removal of the organic matter and nutrients, and sewage sludge was treated with STRB. Determinations of pharmaceuticals (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs - ibuprofen, paracetamol, flurbiprofen, naproxen, diclofenac and its metabolites) and basic parameters were carried out in samples of influent and effluent from WWTP and in the liquid phase of surplus activated sludge (SAS) as well as reject water from STRB.The potential of removal varied among target pharmaceuticals. Ibuprofen and naproxen were completely removed by the standard applied technology of the Gniewino WWTP. Diclofenac and its metabolites were the chemicals with the lowest removal potential in wastewater and the highest detection frequency. These pharmaceuticals were also detected in the liquid phase of SAS as well as in reject water. However, removal potential when using STRB was higher than 94% (mostly higher than 99%), independent of the season. Indeed, the STRB technology is not only efficient in sludge dewatering and nutrient removal (primary purpose), but also elimination of polar pollutants. Nevertheless, removal in STRB did not mean that pharmaceuticals were totally eliminated because these compounds could be “trapped and stored” in beds (by the process of sorption) or transformed into other products. This study is a starting point for further exploration of STRB technology for elimination of emerging pollutants.

Polish experience in operation of sludge treatment reed beds

Sludge Treatment Reed Beds (STRBs) is the technology of sludge treatment, which is based on natural processes occurring in the environment, in specially designed and operated facilities to achieve benefits for the environment. Integrated dewatering and stabilization occur in reed systems. For economic and environmental reasons it is an attractive solution, especially in rural areas where there are no appropriate facilities.In the recent years many European countries like Denmark, France or Germany have applied this technology for sewage sludge management. Poland has also some experience in dewatering and stabilization of sewage sludge in STRB systems.The objective of the paper is to present the current experience and lessons learned from the operation and to assess the quality of sewage sludge from STRBs in Poland.The analyzed sewage sludge was treated in STRBs located in five wastewater treatment plants: Darżlubie, Swarzewo, Zambrów, Nadole and Gniewino, Poland. Two from the analyzed systems (Darżlubie and Swarzewo) worked only in a pilot scale and three of them (Darżlubie, Swarzewo and Nadole) did not work any longer. In the collected samples of sludge the evaluation of dewatering and stabilization processes, fertilizer properties, as well as heavy metals concentrations were determined.The average dry matter content in sludge treated in Polish STRBs was from 11.2 to even 53.7%. The degree of mineralization in analyzed systems was from 31.4 to 68.6%. The average nutrient contents was for nitrogen from 1.0 to 10% DM and for phosphorus from 0.2 to 1.0% DM.The conducted research confirms that sludge treated in STRBs is dewatered and stabilized, thus it could be used as a fertilizer in agriculture.

Beyşehir Gölü Çevresindeki Sazlık Alanların Yaban Hayatı Çeşitliliği

Bu çalışma Beyşehir Gölü’nün kuzeybatısında bulunan sazlık alanlar ile bazı memeli yaban hayvanlarının birey sayıları ile hesaplanan tür çeşitliliği arasındaki ilişkileri ortaya koymak amacıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. Yaklaşık 1875 ha olan çalışma alanı 500 x 500 m büyüklüğünde toplam 75 hücreye ayrılmıştır. 2016 yılının ilkbahar ve sonbahar aylarında, çalışma alanı için oluşturulan her bir hücreye gidilerek yaban hayvanlarına ait iz, dışkı ve belirti taraması yapılmıştır. Envanter sonuçlarına göre ilkbahar döneminde 172 noktada, sonbahar döneminde ise 290 noktada 9 farklı (Saz kedisi, Vaşak, Kurt, Tilki, Çakal, Yaban domuzu, Yaban tavşanı, Kaya sansarı ve Porsuk) memeli yaban hayvanına ait belirti tespit edilmiştir. İlkbahar ve sonbahar dönemleri için elde edilen birey sayıları kullanılarak her bir hücre için Shannon-Wiener çeşitlilik indeksi hesaplanmış ve ait olduğu hücreye hesaplanan değer girilerek haritalama işlemi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Tüm alana ait çeşitlilik haritası içinde iki döneme ait verilerin toplamı kullanılmıştır. Toplam memeli yaban hayvanı tür çeşitliliği HT:1,581 olarak elde edilirken mevsimlere göre kıyaslandığında ilkbahar döneminde bu değer Hİ=1,418 olarak, sonbahar döneminde ise HS=1,56 olarak hesaplanmıştır.

French Reed Bed as a Solution to Minimize the Operational and Maintenance Costs of Wastewater Treatment from a Small Settlement: An Italian Example

French Reed Bed (FRB) is a particular constructed wetland (CW) solution which receives raw wastewater. Data from the full-scale FRB wastewater treatment plant of Castelluccio di Norcia (center of Italy) were collected to show the FRB capability to minimize the operational and management (O&amp;M) costs. The system was designed to treat wastewater variable from 200 person equivalent (PE) in off-season up to 1000 PE. Data from 2014 up to 2016 showed high removal efficiency in line with French experiences with FRBs. An interview was conducted with the Water Utility to estimate the operational and maintenance (O&amp;M) costs faced by the WWTP, which allowed us to detail the O&amp;M costs for energy consumption, water quality samples, and personnel for inspection. Other O&amp;M expenditure items were estimated on the basis of parametric costs from the executive design. The FRB O&amp;M costs in euro for 500–1000 PE (6–11 € PE−1 year−1) resulted from 5 to 13 lower in comparison to those reported for classical activated sludge systems in an Italian context (45–90 € year−1). The low O&amp;M costs are mainly due to the limited energy consumed and to the minimized costs of sludge management.

High densities of the french coastal endemic bluethroat (Cyanecula svecica namnetum) revealed in intertidal reed beds and conservation perspectives towards sea level rise

Our study deals with density estimation in intertidal reed beds of the Gironde estuary (France) of the French endemic subspecies of Bluethroat breeding along the Atlantic coast (Cyanecula svecica namnetum). We analysed count point data collected during the beginning of the breeding period, with information gathered from 94 stations distributed over 100 hectares. Analysis of data integrating bird detection probability as a function of the detection distance (distance sampling) allowed us to estimate an average density of 20.5 ± 3.7 males for 10 hectares (14.4 – 29.5 within the 95 % CI). Up to now, no equivalent densities have been documented for this endemic taxa which is of conservation concern given its relatively high degree of specialization in terms of ecological resources exploited and its limited range and numbers. Despite their singularity given the limited size of the study area, our results confirm the particular importance of coastal marshes for C. s. namnetum. In view of strong alterations of coastal habitats due to the rise in sea level already observed in the breeding grounds of C. s. namnetum, our results highlight the interest in developing conservation strategies for habitats exploited by the taxa, integrating the potential key roles of back littoral areas in order to compensate losses of habitats due to the ongoing and forthcoming effects of global changes.

Response of vegetation to growing recreational pressure in the shallow Raczyńskie Lake

Strong human impact accelerates eutrophication which deteriorates water quality and consequently prevents recreational use. Increasing trophy and low transparency induce macrophyte rebuilding. A gradual transformation of the land use of the direct catchment area of Raczyńskie Lake from agricultural to recreational has been observed over the last 45 years. In built-up areas sewage facilities were inadequate and septic tanks did not work properly and as a consequence most wastewater was able to infiltrate through the ground into the lake. The lake ecosystem became unstable and water blooms intensified. The aim of the study was to assess the changes in the composition of the lake vegetation over the last 45 years, during which the use of the direct catchment has changed and recreational pressure increased. A reduction of the number of plant communities from 24 to 15 and the disappearance of almost all the submerged vegetation was observed. The dominant reed beds (Phragmitetum communis,Typhetum angustifoliae) were unable to provide a sufficient barrier to the flow of pollution from the catchment because of the numerous gaps made for angling piers, bathing sites, jetties, etc. The macrophyte index indicated a bad ecological status. To improve the ecological status of Raczyńskie Lake it is necessary to introduce intensive protection and restoration treatments.

Evaluation of Green-LiDAR Data for Mapping Extent, Density and Height of Aquatic Reed Beds at Lake Chiemsee, Bavaria—Germany

Aquatic reed is an important indicator for the ecological assessment of freshwater lakes. Monitoring is essential to document its expansion or deterioration and decline. The applicability of Green-LiDAR data for the status assessment of aquatic reed beds of Bavarian freshwater lakes was investigated. The study focused on mapping diagnostic structural parameters of aquatic reed beds by exploring 3D data provided by the Green-LiDAR system. Field observations were conducted over 14 different areas of interest along 152 cross-sections. The data indicated the morphologic and phenologic traits of aquatic reed, which were used for validation purposes. For the automatic classification of aquatic reed bed spatial extent, density and height, a rule-based algorithm was developed. LiDAR data allowed for the delimitating of the aquatic reed frontline, as well as shoreline, and therefore an accurate quantification of extents (Hausdorff distance = 5.74 m and RMSE of cross-sections length 0.69 m). The overall accuracy measured for aquatic reed bed density compared to the simultaneously recorded aerial imagery was 96% with a Kappa coefficient of 0.91 and 72% (Kappa = 0.5) compared to field measurements. Digital Surface Models (DSM), calculated from point clouds, similarly showed a high level of agreement in derived heights of flat surfaces (RMSE = 0.1 m) and showed an adequate agreement of aquatic reed heights with evenly distributed errors (RMSE = 0.8 m). Compared to field measurements, aerial laser scanning delivered valuable information with no disturbance of the habitat. Analysing data with our classification procedure improved the efficiency, reproducibility, and accuracy of the quantification and monitoring of aquatic reed beds.

Limited overlap of the community of bees and wasps (Hymenoptera: Aculeata) nesting in reed galls with those nesting in other cavities

Hymenopterans occurring in wetlands represent specific community with bioindicative characters but poorly understood nesting biology. We have studied the nesting preferences of these insects in ten reed beds—five represented by natural wetlands, and the other five localized to anthropogenic sites. We reared the hymenopterans from trap-nests consisting of reed stalks and goldenrod stems, which were installed at the localities through the nesting season, and compared them with quantitative data of hymenopterans reared from reed galls collected at the same localities. Most of the species that nested in reed galls accepted the reed stalk traps but not vice versa. Some of the species that accepted both these nesting resources strongly differed in their frequency of use of these two nesting resources. Moreover, the species composition differed substantially between goldenrod stems and either reed stalks or reed galls. The digger wasp Pemphredon fabricii was eudominant in reed galls with higher abundance at anthropogenic sites, while it was also observed in reed stalks but in much lower numbers. Hylaeus pectoralis was frequent in reed galls at both habitat types and only one individual was reared from reed stalks. Trypoxylon deceptorium was quite numerous in reed galls but much more frequent in reed stalks. Species unknown from reed galls (Psenulus pallipes, Hylaeus confusus, Gymnomerus laevipes) were numerous in reed stalks. We experimentally confirmed that P. fabricii and H. pectoralis show high preference of reed galls and are dependent on these nesting resources. The available evidence suggests that the management of both natural and anthropogenic sites needs to implement tools preserving reed beds, especially the terrestrial ones with reed galls.

Full Scale Sludge Treatment in Reed Beds in Moderate Climate—A Case Study

The wastewater treatment plant of Wathlingen, Germany, has a design capacity of 20,500 p.e. Since 2000, the sewage sludge has been treated in four reed beds with an area of 3000 m2 each. During this time, three of the four polders were emptied once and put into operation again, which has allowed for an evaluation of complete operation cycles from startup to sludge removal. This paper comprises data on polder construction and operating results as well as an economic evaluation of construction, operation, and sludge disposal costs. Results show that sludge DS mass may be reduced by at least 23% and at most 52%. Water content was reduced, but the DS concentration of the product excavated was not higher than around 20% DS. Operation experiences proved that the system is very user-friendly and requiring limited maintenance and control work. To make the best use of this technique, it is recommended a separate area for additional storage and dewatering is provided after the sludge from the polders is removed. This allows for the possibility for the operators to determine the appropriate time and conditions for final disposal.

Determinants of farmers’ enrollment in voluntary environmental programs: evidence from the Eregli Reed Bed area of Turkey

This study investigated the determinants of farmers’ enrollment and its continuity, in the voluntary agri-environmental program, which was initiated in the Eregli Reed Bed area of Turkey in 2006. The respondents were selected by drawing two stratified samples based on farm size. Descriptive statistics were used to determine the socioeconomic characteristics and communication behaviors of the farmers, and Chi-square tests of independence were used to compare enrolled and unenrolled farmers in terms of these variables. Focus group interviews were conducted to address common issues related to program enrollment and sustainable use of farm resources. The binary logistic regression model was applied to determine the factors affecting enrollment. Results of the Chi-square tests showed that enrolled farmers significantly differed from unenrolled farmers in terms of five socioeconomic characteristics and three communication behaviors. According to the results of the binary logistic regression model, level of income, use of the Internet, and contact with extension services have a positive effect on the enrollment status. In the focus group interviews, better financial support and communication network via the Internet, and more frequent contact with extension services were emphasized to be effective factors in enrollment. Financial ability to adopt agri-environmental programs was a significant barrier for the non-participants. This suggests that agri-environmental programs should first focus on high income farmers, but that all farmers should be informed and a good communication network should be established via the extension service.

Impacts of future climate scenarios on hypersaline habitats and their conservation interest

This study is focused on determining the response behaviour of five saline plant communities to two environmental variables: flooding and salinity. Also, total soil organic carbon, diversity, plant cover and vegetation height were measured. Once this behaviour is known, the impacts of future climate scenarios may be approached. Since some of these variables could be altered by climate change, the future vegetation dynamics might indicate the trending of change, so plant communities can be used as bioindicators. The investigation was carried out in some small coastal wetlands located in a semiarid Mediterranean region. Low values of diversity were found in these plant communities due to a great effect of flooding, followed by salinity. ‘Reed beds’ are bioindicators of flooding and environmental disturbance. ‘Saline rushes’ are also flooding bioindicators and efficient accumulators of organic matter. ‘Mediterranean halophilous scrubs’ are bioindicators of seasonal flooding and changes to salinity. ‘Mediterranean halo-nitrophilous scrubs’ might be considered as bioindicators of low flooding and low salinity in anthropic environment while ‘Mediterranean salt steppes’ bioindicate driest conditions. At present, Mediterranean halophilous scrubs are the most widely extended community, which could be interpreted as a consequence of a changing and sharply seasonal climate. Our research suggests that future climate change scenarios involving flooding increases would support the proliferation of the lowest diversity and thus lower ecological value plant communities (i.e. reed beds). Conversely, a future scenario of decreasing flooding would benefit the most diverse and valuable conservation community actually priortized by European Habitats Directive (Mediterranean salt steppes, Limonietalia).

Stabilization process in reed bed systems for sludge treatment

Reed bed systems (RBS) represent an innovative and ecologically sound treatment method for the stabilization of sludge from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), which is also able to provide several ancillary ecosystem services. In this study, the performance of sludge stabilization achieved during the operation of an RBS for the stabilization of excess sludge extracted from a WWTP located in Central Italy (“La Fontina” WWTP, 15,000 p.e.) was studied. In order to evaluate the process of sludge stabilization, parameters representing the biochemical, chemical and chemico-structural properties of organic sludge matter have been tracked during the entire period of operation (6 years).The main aim of this paper is to monitor the stabilization process of sludge organic matter occurring during the main RBS operational stages (commissioning, operation and resting), in order to derive useful rules and parameters for the formulation of novel guidelines for RBS design and operation.Each singular operational stage was characterized by the predominance of a specific process of organic matter stabilization as follows:1)During the commissioning phase, the mineralization of fresh organic matter turned out to be the primary process, as highlighted by the values of water soluble carbon (4195mgC/kgdw) and dehydrogenase activity (25.5mgINTF/kgdwh) reached at 24 months;2)During the operating phase, the mineralization of pseudo-stable organic matter proved to prevail over the humification process, as demonstrated by the decrease of toluene (from 27.5% to 22.9%) derived from chemical-structural organic matter characterization performed by the Py-GC technique;3)During the resting period, humification and sanitation processes became predominant, thus enabling a final safe reuse of stabilized sludge as biosolids for land application, proved by the absence of Escherichia coli and Salmonella, and by the values of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (1.53mg/kgdw), di-2-ethylhexyl-phthalate (3.63mg/kgdw), nonyl-phenols (20.9mg/kgdw), and linear alkyl benzene sulfonates (4.99mg/kgdw).

Sludge Dewatering and Mineralization in Sludge Treatment Reed Beds

Sludge Treatment Reed Beds (STRBs) are widely used in Northern Europe to dewater and mineralize surplus sludge from activated sludge systems used to treat urban domestic sewage. STRBs are low-technology, energy-efficient, and do not require addition of chemicals. They dewater and stabilize the sludge and produce a final product that can be safely used as a fertilizer for agricultural crops. Long-term sludge reduction takes place in the reed beds due to dewatering and mineralization of the organic matter in the sludge. Although, in theory, a simple technique relying largely on natural processes, experience has shown that it is very important to understand and respect the basic design and operation requirements of STRBs. This paper describes the basic design and operation requirements of STRBs, with special focus on pivotal requirements to respect in order to secure proper functioning. Also, the paper summarizes performance experience concerning final dry matter content, degree of mineralization, emission of greenhouse gases, and degradation of micro-pollutants in STRBs. There are still a number of outstanding issues that are not fully understood, particularly in relation to the importance of the sludge quality for the dewatering in an STRB. Therefore, extreme care should be taken when attempting to extrapolate the use of STRBs to applications and regions outside of their ‘normal’ and documented area of application.

Reed Bed Technology and Recharging on Groundwater: Mitigating the climate effect of coastal areas

Reed Bed municipal treatment technique is introduced which will surely play an effective and actual role in climate change and environment. Knowledge and skills will expand to the other community and this will contribute to healthy atmosphere. The major areas to be focused here are plantation, recharge of groundwater, irrigation for coastal, arid and semi-arid areas. Technology will therefore helpful in climate change and awareness regarding the wastewater contamination, especially stakeholder by mobilization activities and their capacities will be built as to how to minimize the contamination and recycle the water at micro and macro level. It produces quality fertile water for irrigation purposes. Presently fresh water is being used for irrigation and planting and fresh water will be saved. It is economical and cost-effective tool and study will contribute to avoid making water deficient sustainability.

Syntaxonomical analysis of the riparian vegetation of thePorsuk River (Eskişehir-Kütahya/Turkey)

This study is about the classification and syntaxonomic allocation of the riparian vegetation of the Porsuk River (Eskişehir-Kütahya, western part of Central Anatolia). The Porsuk is part of the Sakarya River basin and is the longest tributary of the Sakarya River. The data were collected using the phytosociological method of Braun-Blanquet and analyzed using TWINSPAN classification and NMDS ordination. Ten syntaxa were identified, all of which are more or less widespread in the nemoral and meridional zone. The woody alluvial vegetation of the study area comprises the associations Salicetum albae, Populetum albae, and Elymo-Rubetum caesii. The riparian reed bed vegetation is represented by the associations Phragmitetum australis, Schoenoplectetum tabernaemontani, Typhetum latifoliae, Typhetum angustifoliae, Cyperetum longi, Caricetum gracilis, and Galio palustris-Juncetum inflexi. The community composition, though of azonal character, suggests marked influence of biogeographical and climatic sub-Mediterranean conditions.

Assessment of ecosystem services of the wetlands in the Ili River Delta, Kazakhstan

Central Asia is the region with the worldwide highest number of endorheic or closed river basins. Many of those river basins are transboundary ones. Following the desiccation of the Aral Sea, Lake Balkhash has become the largest lake of Central Asia with an area of 17,000 km2. The Ili Delta, in total 8000 km2 large, is the largest natural delta and wetland complex of Central Asia. Seventy percent of the Ili River’s runoff is generated in China. So, the Ili Delta is a showcase for a wetland complex lying downstream in a transboundary river basin. The objective of this paper is to assess the area and distribution of the wetlands and Phragmites australis-dominated reed vegetation as major natural ecosystems in the Ili Delta and their associated ecosystem services. An analysis of Rapid Eye satellite images revealed that there are wetlands and reed vegetation on a total area of 211,778 ha in the Ili Delta. A total of 85,400 ha are submerged reed beds with a total estimated biomass of 869,097 t. P. australis is used as fodder and raw material. Currently, there are about 100,000 livestock grazing in the delta. The submerged reed is planned to be used by a factory for chipboards and a paper factory. The wetlands are important spawning grounds for fish of Lake Balkhash. In 2014, almost 10,000 tourists visited the delta. Most of all tourists come from Almaty, followed by Russia, other regions of Kazakhstan, and Europe (outside Russia).