Sodium Reduction Research Articles

Dietary sodium reduction in Canada: more action is needed to reach the 2025 global targets.

KEY POINTS Excess dietary sodium is a leading dietary risk factor for death and disability worldwide, owing to its adverse impacts on cardiovascular health.[1][1] The World Health Organization prioritized dietary sodium reduction as a “best buy” population health intervention, and included a “

Updates in hypertension: new trials, targets and ways of measuring blood pressure.

Several recent trials and observational studies have identified critical areas that can help to improve the management and measurement of blood pressure in patients with hypertension. High-quality trial evidence supports intensive SBP lowering to 110-130 mmHg in older patients, potassium- based salt substitution in patients without chronic kidney disease, and chlorthalidone for the management of hypertension in patients with chronic kidney disease. In addition, population-based studies indicate enormous underdiagnosis of primary aldosteronism as well as greater sustained intensification of antihypertensive therapy in older patients by maximizing medication dosage rather than adding new agents. The prevalence of hypertension is stable worldwide, though is generally improving in high-income countries and worsening in low-income countries. Furthermore, although cuffless blood pressure devices have the potential to improve access to blood pressure measurement, they have not yet demonstrated sufficient accuracy for clinical use. Growing evidence supports intensive blood pressure lowering, sodium reduction, targeted antihypertensive treatment and appropriate screening for secondary hypertension to optimize blood pressure control and reduce the risk of target organ damage from hypertension. Future studies are needed to identify ways to improve our ability to implement these findings in routine clinical practice.

Seed priming with different agents mitigate alkalinity induced oxidative damage and improves maize growth

Soil alkalinity is a severe threat to crop production globally as it markedly retards plant growth. Different techniques are used to mitigate alkaline stress, but priming techniques are considered the most appropriate. The current study was carried out in complete randomized design (CRD) to evaluate the effect of different priming techniques on maize crop grown under different levels of alkalinity stress. The experiment was comprised of different treatments of alkalinity stress (AS) including, control, 6 dS m-1 and 12 dS m-1 and different priming techniques including control, hydro-priming (HP), osmo-priming (OP) with potassium nitrate: KNO3) and redox-priming (RP) with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Results indicated that alkalinity stress significantly reduced plant growth and biomass production and induced severe alterations in physiological attributes and antioxidant activities. Soil alkalinity significantly reduced the root and shoot growth and subsequent biomass production by increasing electrolyte leakage (70.60%), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2: 31.65%), malondialdehyde (MDA: 46.23%) and sodium (Na+) accumulation (22.76%) and reduction in photosynthetic pigments, relative water contents (RWC), total soluble proteins (TSP) and free amino acids, potassium (K+) accumulation. However, priming treatments significantly alleviated the alkalinity-induced toxic effects and improved plant growth. OP (KNO3) remained the top performing. It appreciably improved plant growth owing to the improved synthesis of photosynthetic pigments, better RWC (16.42%), TSP (138.28%), FAA (178.37%), and K+ accumulation (31.385) and improved antioxidant activities (APX and CAT) by favoring the Na+ exclusion and maintenance of optimum Na+/K+. In conclusion, KNO3 priming is an imperative seed priming practice to improve maize growth and biomass production under alkalinity stress.

Abstract P056: Quality Assessment Of Consumer-facing Sodium Reduction Websites

Objective: To evaluate the quality of information and guidance on dietary sodium reduction available on consumer-facing websites. Methods: Google Trends was used to identify the five most used search terms related to sodium reduction. For each term, the top 20 websites were collected. Of 93 unique websites, 69 met inclusion criteria. Each website was evaluated using 14 questions in three categories ("information", "guidance", “accuracy”). For each question, the website was scored using a 3-step scale (“none”, “somewhat”, “adequate”). Results: Overall, only three of 14 questions were addressed adequately by a majority of websites (Figure). Many provided information on adverse health effects of a high sodium diet (74%, n=51) or mentioned intake recommendations (64%, n=44). Information on dietary sources of sodium and potassium or the difference between salt and sodium was largely missing. Most websites (80%, n=55) provided information on lifestyle strategies to reduce blood pressure, but a majority did not provide guidance for purchasing or preparing food with less sodium. Misinformation was uncommon. Conclusion: Consumers seeking information and guidance online will find most websites offer accurate but limited information, and insufficient guidance on how to lower sodium intake. Practical tools and relevant skills should be included for effective sodium reduction. Figure. Quality of guidance and information of identified websites (n=69) to help consumers lower sodium intake. Google trends was used to identify five frequently used search terms regarding sodium reduction. The 14 questions applied to each website were designed to evaluate the presence and quality of information and guidance for dietary sodium reduction. For each question, the information, guidance, or accuracy of the website was scored as “none”, “somewhat”, or “adequate”. Two researchers (TH and TA) independently assessed each question for each website, and disagreements were resolved by consensus or by consulting a third investigator (MEH).

Predicting the effectiveness of interventions on population-level sodium reduction: A simulation modeling study.

Background and AimsInterventions that significantly reduce dietary sodium intake are anticipated to decrease gastric cancer (GCa) burden. However, the optimal restriction strategies remain unknown at present. This study aims to understand where and to what extent policies modifying sodium consumption change the distribution of GCa burden, and the effects of potential salt reduction strategies in China.MethodsThe synthetic population in this microscopic simulation study is close to reality. We incorporated estimates of dietary patterns and GCa risk into the model of excess salt consumption. These estimates and simulated population were obtained from the China Health and Nutrition Survey, Global Burden of Disease Project, and the sixth census of China's National Bureau of Statistics, respectively.ResultsIn the no intervention scenario, we estimated that disease burdens due to excess sodium intake would be at 472.9 million disability‐adjusted life years (DALYs) nationally between 2010 and 2030 (95% credible interval [CrI]: 371.1–567.7). The GCa burden caused by high sodium is projected to have a disproportionate impact on the central and southern provinces of China (9.2 and 4.5 million DALYs, respectively). Implementing a cooking salt substitute strategy would be expected to avoid a larger portion of GCa burden (about 67.2%, 95% CrI: 66.8%–67.6%) than the salt‐restriction spoon program (about 16.7%, 95% CrI: 16.1%–17.4%).ConclusionDietary salt reduction policy is very powerfully effective in reducing the GCa burden overall. It is expected that proposed salt substitutes are more effective than traditional salt‐restriction spoons to avoid increased inequality.

Sodium Levels in Pre-packaged Foods and Beverages Sold in Jamaica: A Label Analysis

Background: High salt intake is the main dietary risk factor for hypertension, one of the five leading causes of death, among Jamaicans. A large share of available pre-packaged products are ultra-processed, containing sodium well in excess of recommended healthy thresholds. Policymakers are advocating for reformulations and devising public education strategies to reduce sodium content which requires an understanding of the amount and variety of sodium compounds being used in products. Procedures: This study describes the sodium content of 5,008 pre-packaged products using food label analysis. Products were divided into 15 foods and 4 beverage categories. Descriptive statistics were used to present sodium data. Additionally, a keyword search for the terms “salt” and “sodium” was done to identify the type and variety of sodium-containing ingredients in each product. Findings: Approximately, 44% of products were high in sodium. In addition to salt (sodium chloride), other sources of sodium included 27 sodiumcontaining chemical additives identified from the ingredient listing. Ready-to-heat/eat foods, animal meat products, dry spices, seasoning, spreads and sauces contained the most sodium per serving. There was high variability in mean sodium levels within and across food and beverage categories. Conclusions: Overall, a large share of pre-packaged products in Jamaica are ultra-processed emphasizing the urgency for product reformulations and policies towards healthier levels of sodium. Keywords: Sodium; Food label; Blood pressure; Hypertension; Packaged foods; Beverages; Jamaica; Sodium reduction; Reformulation; Food policy

Compendium of sodium reduction strategies in foods: A scoping review.

In response to health concerns generated by increased sodium intake, many new approaches have been studied to reduce the sodium content in processed food. It has been suggested that reducing sodium in the food supply may be the most appropriate solution. The aim of this scoping review was to establish what sodium reduction strategies are effective in maintaining acceptable sensory qualities for various food industry applications. Studies that evaluate and report on the effectiveness of a sodium reduction strategy relevant to food and included outcomes detailing how the strategies were received by human subjects using sensory data are included, as well as book chapters, literature reviews, and patents focusing on sodium reduction strategies. Only those published in English and since 1970 were included. Literature was obtained through Scopus, PubMed, EBSCOhost, and ScienceDirect databases, whereas patents were obtained through US Patent Trademark Office, Google Patents, and PATENTSCOPE databases. Two-hundred and seventy-seven primary studies, 27 literature reviews, 10 book chapters, and 143 patents were selected for inclusion. Data extracted included details such as analytical methods, broad and specific treatment categories, significant outcomes, and limitations among other material. Sodium reduction methods were categorized as either salt removal, salt replacement, flavor modification, functional modification, or physical modification. Although salt removal and salt replacement were the majority of included studies, future research would benefit from combining methods from other categories while investigating the impact on sensory characteristics, technological aspects, and consumer perception of the strategy.

Sodium content of restaurant dishes in China: a cross-sectional survey

BackgroundSodium intake in China is extremely high and eating in restaurants is increasingly popular. Little research has explored the sodium level of restaurant dishes. The present study aims to assess the content and sources of sodium in Chinese restaurants.MethodsCross-sectional data were obtained from the baseline survey of the Restaurant-based Intervention Study (RIS) in 2019. A total of 8131 best-selling restaurant dishes with detailed recipes from 192 restaurants in China were included. Sodium content per 100 g and per serving were calculated according to the Chinese Food Composition Table. The proportion of restaurant dishes exceeding the daily sodium reference intake level in a single serving and the major sources of sodium were determined.ResultsMedian sodium content in restaurant dishes were 487.3 mg per 100 g, 3.4 mg per kcal, and 2543.7 mg per serving. For a single serving, 74.9% of the dishes exceeded the Chinese adults’ daily adequate intake for sodium (AI, 1500 mg per day), and 62.6% of dishes exceeded the proposed intake for preventing non-communicable chronic diseases (PI, 2000 mg per day). Cooking salt was the leading source of sodium in Chinese restaurant dishes (45.8%), followed by monosodium glutamate (17.5%), food ingredients (17.1%), soy sauce (9.4%), and other condiments/seasonings (10.2%). More types of salted condiments/seasonings use were related to higher sodium level.ConclusionsThe sodium levels in Chinese restaurant dishes are extremely high and variable. In addition to cooking salt, other salted condiments/seasonings also contribute a large proportion of sodium. Coordinated sodium reduction initiatives targeting the main sources of sodium in restaurant dishes are urgently needed.

Dietary Chlorella vulgaris with a specific enzyme mixture enriches pork in potassium and improves its sodium to potassium ratio

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to assess the effect of dietary inclusion of 5% Chlorella vulgaris, individually or supplemented with two carbohydrase mixtures, on pork's mineral profile (calcium, copper, iron, potassium, magnesium, manganese, sodium, phosphorous, sulfur and zinc).Design/methodology/approachForty male finishing pigs were assigned to four dietary treatments: cereal and soybean meal-based diet (control), control diet with 5% microalga (CCV), CCV diet supplemented with 0.005% of a commercial xylanase and β-glucanase-based complex and CCV diet supplemented with 0.01% of a mixture of four carbohydrate-active enzymes. Pigs were slaughtered after 41 ± 7.8 days of trial and the mineral composition of longissimus lumborum muscle was analyzed using inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectrometry.FindingsWhen C. vulgaris was supplemented with a four-CAZyme mixture, an increase of total minerals in meat was found due to a higher content of potassium, which led to a decrease of sodium to potassium ratio in pork. However, CCV treatment decreased the amount of calcium and manganese in meat, which was likely due to a lower bioavailability of these minerals in the diet.Originality/valueConsidering the imbalance of sodium and potassium in most Western diets and the increasing occurrence of cardiovascular diseases in the population, the improvement of meat quality caused by a reduction of sodium to potassium ratio might help to reduce the prevalence of high blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases, having thus benefits for consumers' health.

Temporal Sensory Profiles of Regular and Sodium-Reduced Foods Elicited by Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS) and Temporal Check-All-That-Apply (TCATA).

Temporal sensory methods can be used to highlight the impact of sodium reduction on the dynamic sensory profile of foods targeted for sodium reduction. Study aims were to compare the temporal sensory attribute profiles of regular and sodium-reduced food products elicited by TDS and TCATA, over single and multiple oral intakes. A total of 20 semi-trained participants evaluated commercially available regular and sodium-reduced canned corn, cooked ham (single intakes), potato chips and cream of mushroom soup (5 intakes) using both TDS and TCATA. Regular and sodium-reduced products differed in not only salty but also other sensory attributes, noticeably dry for chips, sweet for corn, bitter and metallic for ham, thick, creamy, sweet, and starchy for soup. TDS and TCATA provided comparable information for the key sensory attributes characterizing and differentiating the regular and sodium-reduced products. TDS profiled significant differences between samples for a larger number of attributes than TCATA, while TCATA profiles were more consistent across intakes. Multiple intakes changed the duration of attribute dominance but not the number of significantly dominant attributes in TDS profiles. The current findings provide insight for applications of temporal profiling to other food products and development of sodium-reduced foods with attribute profiles acceptable to consumers.

Sodium Reduction in Bouillon: Targeting a Food Staple to Reduce Hypertension in Sub-saharan Africa.

Bouillon cubes are a staple ingredient used in Sub-saharan African countries providing flavor enhancement to savory foods. Bouillon has been identified as a vehicle for fortification to overcome micronutrient deficiencies in Sub-saharan Africa. However, bouillon has a high sodium content (and in addition with other foods) contributes to dietary sodium intake above recommended guidelines. High dietary sodium intake is a key risk factor for hypertension and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Africa has the highest rates of hypertension and CVD globally with nearly half the adult population above 25 years affected. This review presents current state of research on sodium reduction strategies in bouillon. The key challenge is to reduce sodium levels while maintaining optimal flavor at the lowest possible production cost to ensure bouillon continues to be affordable in Sub-saharan Africa. To produce lower sodium bouillon with acceptable flavor at low cost will likely involve multiple sodium reduction strategies; direct reduction in sodium, sodium replacement and saltiness boosting flavor technologies. Efforts to reduce the sodium content of bouillon in Sub-saharan Africa is a worthwhile strategy to: (i) lower the overall sodium consumption across the population, and (ii) deliver population-wide health benefits in a region with high rates of hypertension and CVD.

US Food Industry Progress Toward Salt Reduction, 2009-2018.

Objectives. To determine the extent to which reductions in sodium during the National Salt Reduction Initiative (NSRI) target-setting period (2009-2014) continued after 2014. Methods. We used the NSRI Packaged Food Database, which links products in the top 80% of US packaged food sales to nutrition information, to assess the proportion of products meeting the NSRI targets and the sales-weighted mean sodium density (mg/100 g) of 54 packaged food categories between 2009 and 2018. Results. There was an 8.5% sales-weighted mean reduction in sodium between 2009 and 2018. Most change occurred between 2009 and 2012, with little change in subsequent years. The proportion of packaged foods meeting the 2012 and 2014 targets increased 48% and 45%, respectively, from 2009 to 2012, with no additional improvements through 2018. Conclusions. Food manufacturers reduced sodium in the early years of the NSRI, but progress slowed after 2012. Public Health Implications. The US Food and Drug Administration just released 2.5-year voluntary sodium targets for packaged and restaurant food. Continued assessment of industry progress and further target setting by the Food and Drug Administration is crucial to reducing sodium in the food supply.

Cross-modal effect of capsaicin and pepper oleoresin on the enhancement of saltiness perception in a NaCl model solution

Reducing sodium scientifically and effectively without affecting the flavor and safety of food remains a challenge for food researchers. A few previous reports have shown that single capsaicin (C) and pepper oleoresin (P) modulate the saltiness perception and sodium reduction, respectively. However, there is a lack of research on whether combining the C + P has an interaction effect on saltiness enhancement. The cross-modal and interactive effect of C and P on the saltiness perception and NaCl reduction in a NaCl model solution at different concentrations (0.98 g/L ∼ 19.88 g/L) using the general labeled magnitude scale (gLMS) were investigated in this study. Results showed that single C or P had a significant saltiness enhancement effect at the low-to-medium NaCl concentration (0.98 g/L ∼ 4.44 g/L) solution. Importantly, it was confirmed for the first time that interactions of C and P can increase saltiness in a ternary water solution system with NaCl, C, and P significantly. And the combination of C and P enhanced the saltiness significantly at the moderate-to-high NaCl concentrations, and the maximum percentages of saltiness intensity enhancement and NaCl reduction reached 37.65% and 26.09%, respectively. This research not only provided valuable data regarding the modulating effect of the “má là” flavor on saltiness perception but also offer novel insights and a promising approach regarding sodium reduction strategies during the development of low-sodium food.

Sodium Reduction by Partial and Total Replacement of NaCl with KCl in Serbian White Brined Cheese.

Cheese has been listed as one of four priority food groups intended for salt reduction reformulation. The present study aimed to investigate the possibility of producing Serbian white brined cheese (Homoljski Sir) with half of NaCl, three quarters of NaCl and all NaCl replaced with KCl (Na50, Na25 and Na0, respectively). Basic composition, proteolysis and texture profile parameters were monitored during 60 days of ripening. At the end of ripening, an acceptance test was conducted by untrained consumers (N = 46). According to the cluster analysis based on hedonic scores, three clusters emerged: male consumers (47.8%), agreeable consumers (30.4%) and highly educated female consumers (21.8%). Both partial and a total salt replacement had no effect on the course of proteolytical changes, the texture and basic composition during ripening. Female consumers did not accept any level of salt substitution, while male consumers showed dislike only for the Na0 cheese. Almost 80% of all consumers liked moderately-to-very-much the Na25 cheese variant. It implies that it is worth considering the production of cheese with 50–75% of NaCl replaced with KCl. The addition of natural flavoring and clear labeling of the sodium reduction should accompany the salt replacement strategy.

The effect of sodium restriction on iodine prophylaxis: a review.

Sodium is essential to life. However, its dietary excess is detrimental to the cardiovascular system, and sodium restriction is a crucial step in cardiovascular prevention. Iodine deficiency has been fought worldwide for decades, and substantial success has been achieved introducing the use of iodine-enriched salt. Nevertheless, areas of iodine deficiency persist around the world, both in developing and industrialized countries, and a major concern affecting dietary sodium reduction programs is represented by a possible iodine intake deficiency. There are substantial differences in the source of alimentary iodine among countries, such as iodized salt added, household tap water, seafood, or salt employed in packaged food. It is clear that a sodium-restricted diet can induce differences in terms of iodine intake, depending on the country considered. Moreover, iodine status has undergone relevant changes in many countries in the last years. Systematic review of literature evidence about the possible effects of sodium restriction on population iodine status. To date, the available results are conflicting, depending on country, salt iodization policy, as well as time frame of data collection. However, to ensure an optimal iodine supply by salt fortification, without exceeding the current recommendation by World Health Organization for salt intake, seems to be an achievable goal. A balanced approach may be obtained by an adequate iodine concentration in fortified salt and by promoting the availability of iodized salt for household consumption and food industry use. In this scenario, updated prospective studies are strongly needed.

Use of Focus Group as Selection Method of Descriptors for Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) for Sensory Characteristics of Hot Dogs.

Check-all-that-apply (CATA) is a methodology for sensory product characterization that can be used by consumers. These characteristics, on the other hand, are determined by a trained panel, and consumers are not asked how they perceive these attributes; as a result, some of the characteristics raised by the trained panel may not be relevant to consumers. In this study, the CATA test was applied to characterize three types of hot dogs, those with or without irradiation and salt reduction, and the focus group (FG) technique was employed to determine the CATA descriptors. Each participant in the FG provided five words (attributes) that, in their opinion, best defined each sample. Then, to understand the meaning and to assemble each of the different terms, a discussion of the defined attributes was conducted. The list of CATA descriptors was compiled using the most often cited attributes. The findings indicate that the major difference in hot dogs was between the formulations with and without sodium reduction. The consumers only noticed minor effects resulting from the irradiation process. The use of focus group as the method to select the CATA descriptors related to hot dogs was proven to be valid since the words that were listed for these samples were attributes that typically characterize hot dog sausages.

Sodium content changes between 2015 and 2019 in restaurant menu items selected for sodium reduction in Daegu.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVESSouth Korea has been conducting the Sodium Reduction Restaurant Project since 2015 to reduce sodium contents in restaurant menus. The purpose of this study was to analyze changes in the sodium content of menus as determined by the Daegu Sodium Reduction Restaurant Project between 2015 and 2019.MATERIALS/METHODSIntervention was aimed at reducing the sodium contents of over 10% of menu items in participating restaurants. On-site inspections and evaluations were conducted using a checklist, and reductions in sodium contents were determined by analyzing the salinities and sodium contents of menus after intervention.RESULTSPost-intervention salinities and sodium contents were significantly lower than baseline values in 2016 (P < 0.001), 2017 (P < 0.001), 2018 (P < 0.001), and 2019 (P < 0.001). However, sodium contents and salinities differences before and after intervention were not significant in 2015. Sodium contents of more than 20% of menu items offered by restaurants that participated in the Sodium Reduction Restaurant Project for 2 yrs starting in 2016 declined by 28.9%. On the other hand, the sodium reduction rate achieved by restaurants that participated for 4 yrs from 2015 reached 55.4%. The percentage of restaurants that participated in the project increased annually, though some failed to be designated as Sodium Reduction Restaurants because they did not meet sodium reduction rate requirements.CONCLUSIONSPositive correlations were found between duration of participation in the project and sodium reduction and designation rates. Sustainable long-term support at the national level is required to expand the project to other regions.

Recent advances in the development of healthier meat products.

Meat products are an excellent source of high biological value proteins, in addition to the high content of minerals, vitamins, and bioactive compounds. However, meat products contain compounds that can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health threat to humans. In this sense, this chapter will address recent strategies to assist in the development of healthier meat products. The main advances about the reduction of sodium and animal fat in meat products will be presented. In addition, strategies to make the lipid profile of meat products more nutritionally advantageous for human health will also be discussed. Finally, the reduction of substances of safety concern in meat products will be addressed, including phosphates, nitrites, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic aromatic amines, as well as products from lipid and protein oxidation.

Sodium reduction in crackers: optimization of process to keep sensory quality without technological impacts

Excess sodium in foods is one of the factors in chronic non-communicable diseases whose importance is on the rise. Thus, the aim of this study was to optimize a replacement for sodium in an appetizer-type Mignon cracker on an industrial scale. For this, a mixture design consisting of seven formulations were prepared with sodium replacement ranging between 30 and 60 %. The partial sodium replacement used industrial ingredients (Nutek Salt and PuraQ NA4, and modified KCl and flavor), to assess the impact on sodium content and texture (hardness). No significant differences were found in the hardness attribute. Sodium reduction ranged from 943.43 to 637.21 mg 100 g–1, and formulation 7 (F7) with 60 % replacement could cash in on the “Reduced in sodium” appeal. A sensory Quantitative Descriptive Analysis accessed the sensory profiles of formulations, and significant differences were observed (p < 0.05) in salty taste, sweet taste, bread aroma, and formulation 4 (40 % replacement) but were not significantly different from the formulation in salty taste. In PCA, the first main component showed variability between samples of 84.6 %, while the second axis explained 11.5 % of this variability. Acceptance (taste and overall quality) and purchase intention (above > 70 %) showed that the substitution did not affect consumers’ perceptions, with no significant difference between controls, F4 and F7.

Activation of MoS2 monolayer electrocatalysts via reduction and phase control in molten sodium for selective hydrogenation of nitrogen to ammonia

Electrochemical nitrogen fixation under ambient conditions is promising for sustainable ammonia production but is hampered by high reaction barrier and strong competition from hydrogen evolution, leading to low specificity and faradaic efficiency with existing catalysts. Here we describe the activation of MoS2 in molten sodium that leads to simultaneous formation of a sulfur vacancy-rich heterostructured 1T/2H-MoSx monolayer via reduction and phase transformation. The resultant catalyst exhibits intrinsic activities for electrocatalytic N2-to-NH3 conversion, delivering a faradaic efficiency of 20.5% and an average NH3 rate of 93.2 μg h−1 mgcat−1. The interfacial heterojunctions with sulfur vacancies function synergistically to increase electron localization for locking up nitrogen and suppressing proton recombination. The 1T phase facilitates H–OH dissociation, with S serving as H-shuttling sites and to stabilize . The subsequently couple with nearby N2 and NHx intermediates bound at Mo sites, thus greatly promoting the activity of the catalyst. First-principles calculations revealed that the heterojunction with sulfur vacancies effectively lowered the energy barrier in the potential-determining step for nitrogen reduction, and, in combination with operando spectroscopic analysis, validated the associative electrochemical nitrogen reduction pathway. This work provides new insights on manipulating chalcogenide vacancies and phase junctions for preparing monolayered MoS2 with unique catalytic properties.