Particle Size Reduction Research Articles

Formulation and Evaluation of Nanosuspension of Mebendazole for Solubility Enhancement by High Pressure Homogenization Technique

Background: Developing and evaluating a drug taken by mouth delivery method with mebendazole nanosuspension to treat intestinal worms infestations are the main objectives of the current research effort. This is because drug particles in the nano range help to reduce particle size and enhance dissolution. Methods: By using High pressure homogenization method, the mebendazole is converted into nanosuspension. Various amounts of HPMC K4M used as a stabilizer and Tween 80 and Poloxamer 188 used as a surfactant and compare its ratios. The results were investigated using effectiveness of drug entrapment, saturation solubility, zeta potential, particle size, drug release study and stability testing. Result: The drug purification results are shown by knowing the FT-IR spectrum. With a good entrapment efficiency and saturated solubility, optimized batches are found and the use of transmission electron microscopy confirms the nano size particle formed. The mebendazole nanosuspension showed higher release in the target site within 12 hours, according to an in-vitro dissolution experiment. Using the oral route for administration of the mebendazole nanosuspension, it increases the drugs absorption along with complete drug releasing. Conclusion: The study indicates that the prepared mebendazole nanosuspension has increased the rate of dissolution and solubility by converting nano range particles and encouraging the use of BCS class Ⅱ drugs with acceptable stability.

Data-Driven Insights into Controlling the Reactivity of Supplementary Cementitious Materials in Hydrated Cement

Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) play an essential role in sustainable construction due to their potential to reduce carbon emissions, promote circular economy principles, and enhance the properties of concrete. However, the inherent diversity of SCMs makes it challenging to predict their degree of reaction (DOR). This study applies machine learning techniques to predict DOR while exploring key parameters affecting it. Five machine learning models are utilized: linear regression, Gaussian process regression (GPR), decision tree regression, support vector machine and extreme gradient boosting, with GPR providing the most accurate and adaptable prediction. The study delves into the impact of various parameters on DOR, revealing their significance. Silica content emerges as the most critical, followed by particle size distribution, specific gravity, and water-to-cement (W/C) ratio. Optimizing DOR requires extending curing time, reducing particle size distribution, and considering optimal silica content and W/C ratio. This research emphasizes the importance of understanding the relationships between parameters and the DOR of SCMs, providing insights to enhance the efficiency of SCMs in cementitious systems through machine learning and data-driven analysis.

Synergistic effects of phosphorylation modification and protocatechuic acid copolymerization improve the physical and oxidation stability of high internal phase emulsion stabilized by perilla protein isolate

A compact antioxidant interfacial layer was fabricated by combining phosphorylation treatment with protocatechuic acid (PA) copolymerization to enhance the physical and oxidative stability of high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) prepared using perilla protein isolate (PPI). The covalent binding between PPI and phosphate groups induced conformational changes, facilitating the interaction between PPI and PA. The formed phosphorylated PPI-PA conjugates (LPPI-PA) exhibited a reduced particle size of 196.75 nm, promoting their adsorption at the interface. HIPEs prepared by LPPI-PA conjugates showed higher storage stability due to decreased droplet size, increased interfacial protein adsorption content (90.48%), and the formation of an interconnected network within the system. Additionally, the combination of LPPI and PA anchored PA to the interface, significantly inhibiting lipid oxidation in HIPEs as evidenced by low levels of lipid hydroperoxide (30.33 μmol/g oil) and malondialdehyde (379.34 nmol/g oil). This study holds significant implications for improving the stability of HIPEs.

Tailings particle size effects on pollution and ecological remediation: A case study of an iron tailings reservoir

The particle size distribution in tailings notably influences their physical properties and behavior. Despite this, our understanding of how the distribution of tailings particle sizes impacts in situ pollution and ecological remediation in in-situ environment remains limited. In this study, an iron tailings reservoir was sampled along a particle flow path to compare the pollution characteristic and microbial communities across regions with different particle sizes. The results revealed a gradual reduction in tailings particle size along the flow direction. The predominant mineral composition shifts from minerals such as albite and quartz to layered minerals. Total nitrogen, total organic carbon, and total metal concentrations increased, whereas the acid-generating potential decreased. The region with the finest tailings particle size exhibited the highest microbial diversity, featuring metal-resistant microorganisms such as KD4–96, Micrococcaceae, and Acidimicrobiia. Significant discrepancies were observed in tailings pollution and ecological risks across different particle sizes. Consequently, it is necessary to assess tailings reservoirs pollution in the early stages of remediation before determining appropriate remediation methods. These findings underscore that tailings particle distribution is a critical factor in shaping geochemical characteristics. The responsive nature of the microbial community further validated these outcomes and offered novel insights into the ecological remediation of tailings.

Particle size reduction influences starch and protein functionality, and nutritional quality of stone milled whole wheat flour from hard red spring wheat

Flour particle size (PS) distribution plays a crucial role in determining the functional properties of starch, protein, and influences the nutritional properties, which ultimately is reflected in the end-product quality. For stone-milled whole wheat flour (WWF) bakers often prefer finer PS for improved color and texture, despite this can sometimes negatively affect other quality aspects. Therefore, understanding the contribution of PS reduction on the functional properties of stone-milled WWF is crucial. This study investigated Hard Red Spring (HRS) WWF of which the mean PS was reduced from 151 μm to 117 μm, the possible finest PS by a “Kombi mill type A 500 MSM” stone mill. PS reduction increased starch damage from 6.58% to 6.71%. Also, the amylose content reduced from 31.7% to 29.4%. However, an increase in syneresis, solubility, oil-holding capacity, and peak viscosity was observed. Glutopeak and wet gluten showed an increased gluten strength. Glutenin/gliadin, polymeric/monomeric protein ratios, and percentage of unextractable polymeric protein were increased by 2.10%, 4.11%, and 4.55%, respectively, indicating increased availability of proteins with relatively larger molecular sizes by PS reduction. The relative proportion of glutenin and gliadin subgroups were also changed. Dietary fiber and resistant starch contents were found to be lower. However, the reduction in phytic acid and FODMAPs is considered beneficial. PS reduction ultimately improved bread loaf volume and crumb structure. Overall, PS reduction of WWF by stone-milling brought positive changes to several functional properties of protein and starch and positively improved the dough rheology and end-product quality.

Effect of ultrasonic degradation on the physicochemical characteristics, GLP-1 secretion, and antioxidant capacity of Polygonatum cyrtonema polysaccharide

This study aimed to evaluate the influence of ultrasonic degradation on the physicochemical and biological characteristics of Polygonatum cyrtonema polysaccharide (PCP, 8.59 kDa). PCP was subjected to ultrasonic treatment for 8, 16, and 24 h and yielded the degraded fractions PCP-8, PCP-16, and PCP-24 (5.06, 4.13, and 3.69 kDa), respectively. Compared with the intact PCP, PCP-8, PCP-16 and PCP-24 had a reduced particle size (decrements of 28.03 %, 46.15 % and 62.54 %, respectively). Although ultrasonic degradation did not alter the primary structure of PCP, its triple helical and superficial structures were disrupted, with degraded fractions demonstrating reduced thermal stability and apparent viscosities compared with those of the intact PCP. Furthermore, the functional properties of the degraded fractions were different. PCP-16 most favourably affected GLP-1 secretion, while PCP-8 and PCP-24 exhibited the strongest antioxidant and enzyme inhibitory activities, respectively. Hence, controlled ultrasound irradiation is an appealing approach for partially degrading PCP and enhancing its bioactivity as a functional agent.

Effect of TiC particle size on the microstructure and properties of CuCr-TiC composites manufactured by powder metallurgy

Poor thermal stability limits the application of CuCr alloys at high temperatures. In this work, non-stoichiometric TiC particles (7 vol%) reinforced CuCr matrix composites were fabricated. The effects of TiC powders with different particle size (1 μm, 2 μm, 4 μm) on the microstructure and properties were studied. The diffusion of supersaturated Ti atoms induced the formation of Cu (Ti) solid solution transition layer at the interface, which improved the interface bonding. Dislocations caused by thermal mismatch promoted heterogeneous nucleation, which led to the precipitation of coarse Cr clusters. The strength and plasticity of composites increased with the reduction of TiC particle size. Strengthening and fracture mechanisms were discussed, and the strength difference was mainly attributed to thermal mismatch strengthening. Meanwhile, TiC particles refined the matrix grains and improved the activation energy of grain growth. The strength and softening temperature of CuCr alloy were 520 MPa and 540 °C, while that of CuCr-1TiC composite were 530 MPa and 915 °C. CuCr-TiC composites displayed much superior thermal stability than the CuCr alloy. These findings provide practical approaches for developing particle-reinforced copper matrix composites with excellent interfacial bonding and thermal stability.

Green preparation of tertiary-phase titanium oxide nanopowder using Chlorella sp. aqueous extract

Herein, a novel green synthesis of tertiary-phase titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) using an aqueous extract of Chlorella sp. was reported for the first time. The TiO2 NPs were prepared using various extract volume concentrations (0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 % v/v) and subsequently calcinated at 600 °C. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) results revealed that the concentration ranging from 5 to 15 % v/v algae extract resulted in mixed phases of anatase, brookite, and rutile, while the extract concentration of 20 % v/v yielded mixed phases of anatase and brookite. The phase transformation from anatase to rutile decreased with increasing extract concentration. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images showed that the average grain size of the control TiO2 was 90 nm, whereas that of algae mediated TiO2 NPs was 10–20 nm. The concentration of algae extract was a very significant parameter for the phase transformation and particle size reduction of TiO2 NPs. The tertiary phase 10 % and 15 % algae mediated TiO2 powder also exhibited reaction rate constants (k) similar to the binary phase 20 % TiO2, despite containing lower anatase content. The present work demonstrated the successful synthesis of tertiary phases TiO2 nanopowder using microalgae Chlorella extract as a biogenic capping agent.

Effects of microwave irradiation at various temperatures on biosludge disintegration

ABSTRACT The waste biological sludge disintegration by using microwave irradiation was investigated at a ramping rate of 2°C/min and 5 min holding time at various target temperatures. Significant disintegration of biosludge was observed and the highest disintegration degree was determined about 82% at the temperature of 110°C. Increase of target temperature elevated the energy needs to 98, 123 and 148 kWh/kg TS at the temperatures of 75°C, 90°C and 110°C, respectively. The gradual increase of sugar and protein in the sludge slurry with increasing temperatures indicates successful degradation. The microwave pretreatment increased the specific surface area of the sludge by particle size reduction. The specific surface area of raw sludge was 70 m2/kg and rose to approximately 253.7 m2/kg at 110°C with an increment ratio of 260%. Although a significant NH4–N release was not observed, PO4–P concentrations increased from 11.0 mg/L to 16.3, 20.7 and 29.2 mg/L at the temperatures of 75°C, 90°C, 110°C, respectively. While the specific filter resistance of waste biological sludge was about 1.0 × 1013, increasing the microwave target temperature, the ability of dewatering decreased and the highest SFR value of 5.1 × 1014 was observed at the temperature of 110°C.

In situ thermal conversion strategy derived from metal-organic framework for enhanced cathode performance in aqueous zinc-ion batteries

The development of aqueous zinc-ion batteries as innovative energy storage devices has garnered significant attention due to their low cost, high safety, and environmental friendliness. However, achieving high-performance and excellent cycling reliability remains a challenge for cathode materials. This study introduces an innovative in-situ thermal conversion strategy using MIL-100(Fe) as the sacrificial template to introduce Fe metal ions into vanadium oxide. This strategy promotes the formation of FeVOx with reduced particle size and enhanced active surface area, facilitating the rapid diffusion of Zn2+. As a result, the FeVOx-1/2 cathode delivers a high specific capacity of 325 mAh/g at a current density of 0.05 A/g and maintains a high capacity retention of about 94.8 % after 4000 cycles at 1 A/g. In-situ electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was employed to elucidate the changes in the electrode interface during the charge-discharge processes. Additionally, a series of ex-situ characterization methods were utilized to further deepen our understanding of the reversible structural changes in the cathode during charge-discharge processes, as well as the corresponding reversible insertion and extraction mechanism for Zn2+ storage. The introduction of Fe not only enhances electrical conductivity, but also provides further structural stabilization, as supported by theoretical calculation results. This study presents a novel approach to broaden the doping strategies for vanadium oxide cathodes by utilizing metal-organic frameworks as templates.

Ion-doped γ-C2S: Clinker characteristics, carbonation products, and carbonation properties

The γ-crystalline form of dicalcium silicate (γ-C2S) is recognized for its carbonation activity, making it a promising low-carbon binder. This study investigates how impurity ions such as sodium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, titanium, nickel, copper, and zinc influence the carbonation characteristics of γ-C2S. Results on the calcined γ-C2S powders indicate that Na, P and K doping hinder the β-γ phase transition. Mg, Ti, Ni and Cu doping have little effect on the crystal form of γ-C2S, but substantially alter their morphology, evident in reduced particle size and increased surface folds. This increases the specific surface area and may facilitate the carbonation reaction. Analysis on carbonation products reveals calcium carbonate content is increasing especially in calcite crystals. The results of carbonation exothermic show the elevation of maximum temperature with the doping level increases. This may be attributable to ion doping promoting the dissociation of Ca2+. The increase in degree of carbonation and compressive strength illustrates the beneficial effects of these ionic doping on mechanical and carbonation properties, in particular, Ti ion doping increased 15.6 % and 75.7 % compared to the blank group, respectively. However, Zn doping is contrary to the results of other four ions and its addition has a negative effect on the properties of γ-C2S. All five ions (Mg, Ti, Ni, Cu, Zn) can be effectively solidified into the calcium carbonate crystals of the carbonation product, which is an important guideline for the future resource utilization of waste and industrialized production. Ion doping provides a reliable reference for future modification of γ-C2S.

Unveiling the Degradation Mechanism of Sodium Ion Batteries Based on Na4Fe3(PO4)2P2O7 Cathode and Hard Carbon Anode Suggests Anode Particle Size Reduction for Cycling Stability

AbstractTo improve the cycle life of sodium‐ion batteries, it is essential to understand the microscopic processes that lead to cell degradation. The mismatched response time of anode and cathode has profound but poorly understood impact on cycle life. In this work, we combine electrochemical and materials characterization along with electrochemical modeling to investigate the root cause of degradation in sodium‐ion full cells made from Na4Fe3(PO4)2P2O7 (NFPP) cathodes and hard carbon (HC) anode. Our results pinpoint to the slow diffusion of Na in HC as the main cause of diffusional polarization that leads to cathode experiencing high local potentials and ultimately to active material loss over cycling. We demonstrate that by reducing the anode particle size, the diffusional timescales in anode can be matched with that of cathode to improve both extractable capacity as well as cycle life. These observations shed light on non‐intuitive and intricate ways in which cathode and anode can interact with each other to cause degradation in Na‐ion batteries and how microscopic understanding of these cause and effects can help design long lasting batteries.

Chickpea protein stabilized Pickering emulsions: As a novel mayonnaise substitute

This study investigates the characteristics of chickpea protein-stabilized Pickering emulsion transformed into a mayonnaise-like product, and examines the effects of altering the oil phase (65–73%) and high-pressure homogenization (0–300 Bar) on its appearance, rheological properties, thixotropy, particle size distribution, and freeze-thaw stability. The results reveal that with an increase in oil phase content or homogenization pressure, the chickpea protein emulsion undergoes a transition from an unstable to a densely packed state, exhibiting gel-like behavior with a significant rise in viscoelasticity and a gradual reduction in particle size. Augmenting the oil phase leads to a decrease in protein chain length and oil droplet size. Within the experimental range, when the chickpea protein content is 5%, and the oil phase is 69%, or when the oil phase is 65% with a homogenization pressure of 40 Bar, the emulsion demonstrates an optimal appearance and rheological properties closely resembling commercial mayonnaise products. This achievement represents a significant milestone in formulating emulsions that closely mimic the characteristics of prevalent mayonnaise products in the market.

Influence of particle size on the magnetic and microwave absorption properties of magnetite via mechano-mechanical methods for micro-nano-spheres

The demand for innovative electromagnetic wave absorbers stems from the pressing need to mitigate electromagnetic interference and pollution emanating from electronic devices and communication technologies, which pose risks to human health and disrupt the functionality of electronic equipment. This study investigates how particle size influences the magnetic and microwave absorption properties of magnetite micron-nano-spheres. Utilizing ball milling (BM) and mechanochemical alloying (MA), particle sizes were controlled by varying the milling times, resulting in a reduction of magnetite's average particle size from 3 µm to 43 nm. The research uncovers the unique effects of blending micron and nano-sized particles, a phenomenon previously undocumented. It was observed that saturation magnetization and coercivity increase with larger particle sizes due to the small size effect. The complex permittivity, dielectric loss and attenuation constant of the magnetite nanocomposites were influenced by the larger interface area and increased defects in smaller-sized nano-filler composites. Decreasing the magnetite particle size leads to a lower frequency shift and a broader bandwidth of the reflection loss (RL) peak in the fixed absorber, with maximum RL achieved for thinner absorber layers. Notably, the mixed micron-nano magnetite composite exhibits promising microwave absorption capabilities, achieving a maximum RL of −35.36 dB at 16.8 GHz with a 1 mm thickness, making it suitable for lightweight microwave absorption. Resonance frequencies corresponding to RL below −20 dB extend to 3.63 GHz, meeting the 99 % wave absorption requirement due to the high loss tangent of antiferromagnetic resonance and significant magnetic relaxation peak over the 8–18 GHz frequency range. This study underscores the significant impact of adjusting the particle size on microwave absorption properties, where decreasing the size broadens the absorption bandwidth, shifts the RL peak to lower frequencies and maximizes RL with thinner thicknesses. Increasing the nano-filler content enhances the absorption bandwidth and microwave absorber performance by augmenting the dielectric loss, attenuation constant and impedance matching. Overall, controlling the particle size proves effective in tailoring microwave absorption, highlighting the potential of magnetite composites as ultra-thin, lightweight materials capable of absorbing a wide range of microwave frequencies. These composites find applications in microwave absorption, stealth technology and managing electromagnetic interference, leveraging the magnetic properties of ferrites and exploiting super-exchange interactions in microparticles-sized materials. Moreover, they benefit from the amplified dielectric or/magnetic losses resulting from the characteristics of nanoparticle-sized materials, including high surface area, greater surface atoms and multiple reflections, resulting in exceptional microwave absorption performance exceeding 99 % across an exceptionally broad bandwidth.

Characterization of sodium caseinate derived from various sources: Unraveling the relationship between structure and functional properties

In this study, the structural and functional properties of laboratory-prepared sodium caseinate (L-SC) from yak Qula with three different sources of commercial products: yak milk, Qula, and milk sodium caseinate products (YM-SC, YQ-SC, M-SC) were compared. The physicochemical properties of different samples were analyzed, indicating significant fat content and color differences. The SDS-PAGE showed predominant protein subunits in the 25 kDa–35 kDa range, with M-SC having the highest κ-casein content and the least aggregation. M-SC exhibited the smallest particle size, lowest surface hydrophobicity (H0) and surface tension at the oil-water interface, with excellent functional properties, whereas YQ-SC exhibited contrast. FTIR suggested that the effect may be attributed to the decreased α-helix and β-sheet structure, and reduction in H0 and protein aggregation, resulting in a notable enhancement in protein solubility and surface activity. After optimizing the alkali extraction conditions and drying method, L-SC showed a reduced particle size of 135.0 nm, significantly improved foaming properties while the prepared emulsion had good stability and smaller d4,3. In addition, the relationship among the indicators was verified by the correlation analysis. These results could provide more information for the manufacturing of sodium caseinate in the food industry.

Spherical polystyrene/zinc oxide nanocomposite powder fabricated by continuous process chain of melt mixing and indirect heating

Polymer powders are limited by particle size, shape, and properties in various applications. Preserving the chemical properties of the material throughout the process is a critical part of developing consistently shaped nanocomposite powders across diverse polymer types. The goal of this study is to demonstrate continuous methods to produce spherical Polystyrene (PS) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanocomposites. A single-screw extruder is used to melt mix PS pellets with ZnO nanoparticles, followed by pelletization, dry grinding, and spheroidization in a Downer Tower to form spherical polymers. To minimize agglomeration, the process incorporates an ethanol treatment and a final sieving step. The resulting nanocomposite powder exhibits exceptional flowability and well-defined spherical morphology. Additionally, incorporating ZnO nanoparticles enhanced the thermal stability and glass transition temperature of the nanocomposite while reducing particle size distribution. Thermogravimetric analysis and X-ray diffraction confirm the preservation of the chemical structure of the spherical nanocomposite specimens throughout processing.

Effects of B-site Co3+ doping on physicochemical characteristics and hydrogen production performance of novel LaCuxCo1-xO3 perovskite coated on monolithic catalyst in methanol steam reforming

A series of B-site Co3+-doped LaCuxCo1-xO3 (x = 1, 0.8, 0.6, 0.4, 0.2) perovskites were synthesized by solution combustion method and their physicochemical properties were comprehensively characterized. The perovskite-coated Cu foams were applied as monolithic catalysts for methanol steam reforming to produce H2. Results showed that an appropriate amount of Co3+ doping led to the stabilization of crystal structure, the reduction of particle size, the improvement of chemical constitution, the enhancement of reduction behavior, the decrease of acidity, the increase of specific surface area, and the optimization of surface chemical state. The monolithic catalyst loaded with LaCu0.4Co0.6O3 showed the highest methanol conversion rate and H2 production rate, the lowest CO selectivity, the best stability and the lowest carbon deposition. However, excess Co3+ resulted in a degradation of the catalytic performance. The findings of this work suggested that introducing Co3+ might be a promising way to enhance the activity of Cu species for obtaining a better Cu-containing perovskite-based monolithic catalyst.

Colloidal and thermal properties of poly(hydroxyethyl caprolactone acrylate‐co‐methyl methacrylate)‐g‐pullulan latex obtained by seeded semi‐batch emulsion polymerization

AbstractIn this study, the influence that the monomer composition of hydroxyethyl caprolactone acrylate/methyl methacrylate (HECLA/MMA) has on the properties of the latex films, including contact angle, thermogravimetric analysis, and mechanical properties was evaluated. The polymerization process to obtain small particle sizes, good colloidal stability, and polymer films was optimized through the use of pullulan (Pull) and different ratios of HECLA and MMA. The results revealed a substantial impact of the monomer composition and polymerization processes on the particle size and latex film properties. The use of seed latex obtained in situ reduces particle size and particle size distribution. Additionally, it was observed that the contact angle of the polymer films increased as the concentration of HECLA increased. Furthermore, the water absorption of the polymer films exhibited a decreasing trend after reaching an 80/20 monomer composition of HECLA/MMA. An increase in HECLA contents in the recipe showed a reduction in tensile strength, elastic modulus, hardness, and elongation at break. Conversely, higher HECLA contents contributed to improving the thermal properties of the polymer films. Finally, the optimal ratio of HECLA/MMA to improve the thermal degradation and tensile mechanical properties of the polymer film was 50/50 wt%. The results found in this work allow additional data for producing poly(HECLA‐co‐MMA)‐g‐Pull latexes by manipulating the ratios of HECLA and MMA, which can create new potential applications in various industrial settings for a wide range of polysaccharides.Highlights Poly(HECLA‐co‐MMA)‐g‐Pull with different ratios of HECLA/MMA were successfully obtained. The use of Pull after molar mass reduction had a significant effect on colloidal stability. A reduction in tensile strength and elongation at break was obtained by increasing the amount of HECLA. Thermal stability of the latex films showed a direct relationship with the content of HECLA. Poly(HECLA‐co‐MMA)‐g‐Pull latexes can be used in agricultural applications.

Improving thermal stability of starches native cross-linked with citric acid as a compatibilizer for thermoplastic starch/polylactic acid blends

This study aimed to enhance compatibility and thermal stability between thermoplastic starch (TPS) and polylactic acid (PLA) by incorporating citric acid-grafted starch (CA–Starch) at different concentrations (1 and 5%) with varying degrees of substitution for starch derived from sweet potatoes and yams (DY). Blends were produced using a constant TPS/PLA weight ratio of 60:40, both with and without a compatibilizer. The blending process was carried out using a torque rheometer under two distinct conditions. The results exhibited reduced particle sizes in TPS60/PLA40/CA–Starch blends, as evidenced by SEM images displaying improved interaction and smoother surfaces. Significantly, one of the properties that experienced substantial improvement was the compatibility between TPS and PLA, as indicated by reduced phase segregation within the blends. This improvement manifested in enhanced surface morphology, smaller particle sizes, and greater homogeneity in the blends. Additionally, an enhancement in thermal properties, particularly thermal stability, was observed with higher CA content. This study underscores that the incorporation of CA–Starch not only enhances compatibility but also improves thermal stability in TPS60/PLA40 blends, offering potential for the development of biocompatible materials with superior performance.Graphical abstract

Enhancing the efficiency of high solid anaerobic digestion of empty fruit bunches under thermophilic conditions by particle size reduction and co-digestion with palm oil mill effluent

This study investigates the impact of thermophilic high solid anaerobic digestion (HS-AD) on biogas production from empty fruit bunches (EFB), focusing on the effects of total solids (TS) loading (5–40 %), particle size reduction (0.5, 3.25, and 6 cm), and co-digestion with palm oil mill effluent (POME) (10–30 % VS basis). The HS-AD at a 15–20 % TS loading has a methane yield of 103.4–105.3 mL CH4/g-VS with 24.6–25.1 % biodegradability. Particle size reduction to 0.5 cm enhanced methane yield by 54–61 % and improved hydrolysis rates by 45 % compared to the untreated EFB (6 cm) at a 15–20 % TS loading. Co-digestion of EFB with POME at a ratio of 31:1 based on VS basis led to a synergistic effect of 17.77 mL CH4/g-VS, increasing methane yield by 24–46.5 % and improving process stability, as evidenced by a 22.8–38.1 % reduction in volatile fatty acids (VFAs) accumulation. Microbial community analysis showed a 2-fold increase in the relative abundance of hydrogenotrophic methanogens (Methanothermobacter sp. and Methanoculleus sp.) during co-digestion, while the abundance of key cellulolytic bacteria (Clostridium sp. and Fibrobacter sp.) increased by 1.5-fold. The optimized HS-AD process achieved a maximum methane yield of 287.77 mL CH4/g-VS and a biodegradability of 61.2 % under thermophilic conditions, with a 20 % POME co-digestion addition (31:1 VS ratio) and 0.5 cm particle size. These findings demonstrate the potential of thermophilic HS-AD for the sustainable management of EFB and highlight the importance of process optimization and co-digestion strategies for enhanced biogas production from EFB.