Reduce Air Pollution Research Articles

Impact of Air Pollution and Smog on Human Health in Pakistan: A Systematic Review

Air pollution is a serious public health issue in Pakistan’s metropolitan cities, including Lahore, Karachi, Faisalabad, Islamabad, and Rawalpindi. Pakistan’s urban areas are vulnerable due to air pollution drivers such as industrial activities, vehicular emissions, burning processes, emissions from brick kilns, urbanization, and other human activities that have resulted in significant human health issues. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of air pollutants and smog, as well as their causes and effects on human health. The PRISMA technique was used to assess the impact of environmental contaminants on human health. This study looked at air pollution sources and pollutants such as PM2.5, PM10, CO2, CO, SOX, and NOx from waste combustion and agriculture. The population included people of all ages and sexes from both urban and rural areas of Pakistan. Data were retrieved and analyzed using SRDR+ software and Microsoft Excel spreadsheets. The data suggested that Karachi and Lahore had the highest levels of air pollution and disease prevalence, which were attributed to heavy industrial activity and traffic emissions. Smog was a serious concern in Lahore during winter, contributing to the spread of several diseases. Other cities, including Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Jhang, Sialkot, Faisalabad, and Kallar Kahar, were impacted by agricultural operations, industrial pollutants, brick kilns, and urbanization. Due to these drivers of air pollution, some diseases such as respiratory and cardiovascular diseases had notably higher incidences in these cities. Other diseases were connected with air pollution exposure, asthma, eye and throat problems, allergies, lung cancer, morbidities, and mortalities. To reduce air pollution’s health effects, policies should focus on reducing emissions, supporting cleaner technologies, and increasing air quality monitoring.

Regulating (ecosystem) services of an urban natural area: A case study in the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Peri-urban conserved natural or semi-natural areas provide several ecosystem services and assist in reducing air pollution in cities. The aim of this study is to assess the contribution to the improvement of air quality of a small area (<1km2) adjacent to a city in the Metropolitan Region of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), which is seriously affected by vehicular and industrial emissions of pollutants. Hydrocarbon (HC) and carbonyl compounds (CC) levels were determined, by employing TO-15 and TO-11A US EPA Methods, respectively, in both the urban and green areas. The results showed that the concentrations of anthropogenic HC were approximately 1.7-2.1 times higher in the urban area which confirms that the natural park assists in the dispersion and reduction of pollutants. In the case of the CC compounds, for samples that were collected in the morning, the total mean and median values were 1.3-1.6 times higher in the urbanized zone, while during the afternoon the green area showed values that were 1.5-1.9 times higher. These results suggest that in the green area, the emission or formation of CC compounds through photochemical processes is significant, particularly in the afternoon. Anyway, the ozone forming potential was found to be lower within the natural park in both periods, which confirms the positive role played by conserved natural areas outside or surrounding extensive metropolitan areas in the reduction of atmospheric pollution, in spite of the negative impact of anthropogenic emissions.

Spatial-temporal correlation effects and persistent synergistic control benefits of fine particulate matter and carbon emissions in China.

The synergistic reduction of air pollutants and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is a key component in achieving China's strategy of pollution and carbon reduction. This study quantitatively evaluates the spatiotemporal linkages between PM2.5 and CO2 emissions, as well as the benefits of sustained synergistic control, across over 360 Chinese cities from 2005 to 2020. We employed spatiotemporal analysis, coupled coordinateness modeling, the Hurst index, and generalized linear mixed modeling (GLMM). The results indicate that PM2.5 concentrations decreased at an annual rate of 1.5μg/m³/year from 2005 to 2020, while CO2 emissions increased at an annual growth rate of 2.3×10⁵ t/year (p<0.05). Spatiotemporal association analysis revealed that the coupling degree of PM2.5 and CO2 emissions increased from 0.64 to 0.81, while the coordination degree decreased from 0.40 to 0.32, exhibiting significant latitudinal zonation and spatial clustering. In terms of synergistic control effectiveness, over 95% of the cities experienced "pollution reduction and carbon enhancement" during the study period, with no cities achieving simultaneous reduction of both PM2.5 and CO2 emissions. Further analysis of the persistence of synergistic control showed that as coupling and coordination levels increased, the city-specific synergistic control efficiency index (CI) decreased. Notably, 86.3% of cities showed persistent trends in their future CIs. The GLMM regression results suggest that the effective integration of scientific and technological innovation, infrastructure development, and economic growth will be pivotal in advancing the successful implementation of China's pollution and carbon reduction strategy.

Change in aerosol optical depth in Chinese urban agglomerations during the early phase of dual-carbon actions

Dual-carbon policies were implemented by Chinese government to mitigate climate warming; however, changes in aerosol optical depth (AOD) during early phases of these actions (2020-2022) remain unclear. Thus, AOD variations during this period were investigated compared to the baseline (2015-2019 mean) across seven urban agglomerations (UAs) using multi-source data. Significant temporal variations in AOD anomalies (ΔAOD) were observed at annual and seasonal scales, with varying magnitudes. On average, AOD decrease by -0.210, -0.225, -0.180, and -0.038 in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH), Yangtze River Delta (YRD), Guanzhong Plain (GZP), and Liaozhongnan (LZN), respectively. In contrast, increases of 0.041 and 0.057 were observed in Pearl River Delta (PRD) and Tianshan Mountains northern foothills (TSBP), while Lhasa metropolitan area (LS) remain stable (0.0001). In 2021, the most significant decrease in AOD was recorded in YRD, whereas the greatest declines in other urban areas were noted in 2022. The largest ΔAOD in LZN, BTH, and YRD occurred in autumn, while the peak ΔAOD in GZP was observed in spring. In contrast, the highest ΔAOD in PRD, TSBP, and LS occurred in summer. These temporal variations in ΔAOD can be attributed to dual-carbon policies, natural and meteorological anomalies, along with the impacts of stringent lockdown policies and abrupt dust events. Path analysis indicated that the effects of various drivers on ΔAOD were interconnected. When interactions among these factors were considered, their influences on ΔAOD were found to be either amplified or altered, highlighting the importance of accounting for interactions within the human-nature-meteorological system in formulation of atmospheric pollution policies. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of ΔAOD variation mechanisms and provide valuable insights for the development of air pollution reduction strategies at the UA scale.

Inequitable Air Quality Improvement in China: Regional and Population-Level Disparities in PM Exposure (2013–2020)

Over the past decade, China has enacted forward-looking environmental policies that have significantly reduced air pollution. However, while there appears to be a synergy between economic development and improvements in air quality, regional imbalances in development and disparities in health risks underscore systemic challenges in environmental governance. This study employed a population-weighted exposure index to evaluate disparities in PM2.5 exposure and its temporal and spatial trends, considering multidimensional socio-economic factors such as education, age, gender, occupation, and urban/rural backgrounds across 32 provinces and regions in China. The findings reveal that despite a notable decline in overall PM2.5 concentrations between 2013 and 2020, improvements in air quality are uneven across regions, with less developed areas bearing a disproportionate burden of emission reductions. Urban centers exhibit lower exposure levels due to resource and industrial advantages, whereas towns experience higher risks of air pollution. Socio-economic disparities are evident, with increased exposure observed in high-pollution industries and among groups with lower educational attainment. Women are more likely to be exposed than men, and both the elderly and children face higher risks. To address these challenges, policies should focus on the economic development of underdeveloped regions, balance environmental protection with growth, prioritize heavily polluted areas and vulnerable populations, and promote the adoption of clean energy to mitigate pollution inequality.

A Review on PM2.5 Sources, Mass Prediction, and Association Analysis: Research Opportunities and Challenges

Air pollution has long been one of the most life-threatening issues which has led to massive amounts of premature human death due to fatal diseases and environmental disasters. Several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set up by the United Nations coincide with the solutions for air pollution reduction. To reach a sustainable future, researchers have conducted many theoretical analyses or case studies of air pollution at different places on the globe and proposed prudent strategies for obtaining an equilibrium between socioeconomic development and air pollution reduction. This research selected a substantial number of articles and existing review papers published between 2013 and 2024 and organized these publications into subfields. This research was focused on filling the gap between existing reviews and the state-of-the-art technologies in the last decade. To be informative and contextual, this review presented a pathway for readers to comprehend the research in three contiguous phases of air pollution analysis, from compositional apportionment and mass prediction of pollution to disclosing associations between pollution concentration and natural or anthropogenic factors. At the end of this review, the author highlighted several research fields which have been overlooked in previous reviews but will be increasingly important in the future.

Evaluation of auditory alerting systems for safe electric scooter operations

It is well understood that a significant shift away from fossil fuel based transportation is necessary to limit the impacts of the climate crisis. Electric micromobility modes, such as electric scooters and electric bikes, have the potential to offer a lower-emission alternative to journeys made with internal combustion engine vehicles, and such modes of transport are becoming increasingly commonplace on our streets. Although offering advantages such as reduced air pollution and greater personal mobility, the widespread approval and uptake of electric micromobility is not without its challenges. Concerns have been raised regarding the safety of such vehicles, most notably related to pedestrian safety of blind and partially sighted individuals, due to the inherently lower sound levels produced by electric vehicles. This study addresses this issue by investigating the use of an Acoustic Vehicle Alerting System (AVAS) for electric scooters by means of a virtual reality experiment and field trials. Eighty-eight participants from four European countries, including thirty-five blind or partially sighted individuals participated across the experiments. Results show high missed detection rates for electric scooter operations without an AVAS in typical city soundscapes (90–97%) and an increase in detectability for all AVAS conditions tested. Modifying AVAS sounds with playback rate and level changes with respect to operational state facilitates detection of deceleration, as well as improving detectability in multiple vehicle scenarios.

Air Quality-Driven Traffic Management Using High-Resolution Urban Climate Modeling Coupled with a Large Traffic Simulation

This study presents a framework for integrating traffic simulation with high-resolution air pollution modeling to design adaptive traffic management policies aimed at reducing urban air pollution. Building on prior work that establishes the coupling of the MATSim traffic model with the PALM-4U urban climate model, this second part focuses on implementing a feedback loop to inform traffic management decisions based on simulated air pollution concentration levels. The research explores how traffic volumes and atmospheric conditions, such as boundary layer dynamics, influence air quality throughout the day. In an artificial case study of Berlin, a time-based toll is introduced, aimed at mitigating concentration peaks in the morning hours. The toll scheme is tested in two simulation scenarios and evaluated regarding the effectiveness of reducing air pollution levels, particularly NO2 during the morning hours. The case study results serve to illustrate the framework’s capabilities and highlight the potential of integrating traffic and environmental models for adaptive policy design. The presented approach provides a model for responsive urban traffic management, effectively aligning transportation policies with environmental goals to improve air quality in urban settings.

The Truth About Co-Benefits: A Multidimensional Feasibility Assessment for Thailand and Beyond

Abstract Research has yielded increasingly robust estimates of the co-benefits from mitigating climate change while reducing air pollution, improving health, and meeting other development needs. Though quantifying these often hidden benefits could ease cost concerns and lower technological constraints for development-friendly climate solutions, achieving co-benefits frequently requires overcoming difficult-to-measure social and institutional barriers. This study extends insights from research focusing on quantitatively assessing the feasibility of a 1.5oC future to build a multidimensional framework for measuring different barriers to achieving co-benefits. The framework offers a novel yet generalizable approach for bringing context-appropriate assessments of different dimensions of feasibility into the integrated assessment modelling that underpins work on co-benefits. It then outlines five steps for applying that framework to evaluate the size of different barriers for transport, agricultural and residential energy co-benefit solutions in Thailand. The results demonstrate that the sum of the delays from social/institutional barriers exceed economic/technological barriers for four out of six studied solutions. These delays also lead to increases of 24% to 31% in PM2.5 emissions relative to a no-barriers effective implementation scenario between 2015 and 2030 and 2040. The feasibility framework can be integrated into not only national policy scenarios but also project assessments, following trends in carbon finance. An international barriers database as well as strengthening links to work on barriers and technological diffusion, transaction costs, and multi-level transitions can also help spread multi-dimensional feasibility assessments across countries and scales.

The synergies of air quality monitoring program: Information disclosure and pollution control.

To deal with the increasingly severe climate crisis and environmental pollution, China launched a nationwide real-time air quality monitoring program in three batches, a milestone moment in its environmental governance history. Using the time-varying difference-in-differences model, this study explores the synergies of this program across 284 cities from 2009 to 2019. The findings are as follows: (1) With environmental information disclosed, the national air quality monitoring program can reduce the outdoor fine particulate matter concentration by an overall effect of 3.31%, equivalent to an almost 1% reduction calculated by its average value. (2) This program can enhance public environmental attention and stimulate environmental practitioners' employment, thereby achieving a synergistic effect on air pollution reduction. (3) The pollution reduction effect is expected to be more pronounced in cities located in the southern and eastern regions, cities with higher population densities, and cities with favourable ventilation capabilities. (4) In response to air pollution problems, the public will adjust their daily consumption patterns to avoid potential health risks. As a result of the short-term behavioural changes, they will be more willing to pay for clean air by purchasing household air purifiers. This study highlights the considerable ecological and economic benefits of environmental information disclosure, thus further contributing to future eco-friendly and sustainable development.

Strategies for shore power facility utilisation under government subsidies: a three-party evolutionary game and simulation analysis

ABSTRACT The global shipping industry has prioritised reducing air pollutants by implementing various policies related to shore power in recent years. Despite these initiatives, both ports and shipping companies exhibit a low willingness to use shore power, resulting in substantial resource waste. Existing multi-party game studies on shore power simulations mostly targeted a static outcomes, lacking insights into dynamic subsidy allocation based on stakeholder interactions. Moreover, studies have often treated the influencing factors of the shipping sector as broad and vague concepts, making it challenging to identify the key determinants affecting stakeholders’ willingness to use shore power comprehensively. This paper aims to addresses these gaps by incorporating specific parameters into an evolutionary game model. By applying the stability theorem of differential equations, we determine the equilibrium points and assess their stability. Simulations are conducted in Matlab to explore the evolution of strategic choices for promoting shore power and evaluate the impact of various factors on ships’ shore power choices. The findings provide insights for enhancing shore power adoption through targeted policies and optimal incentives, thereby contributing to more effective environmental strategies within the shipping industry.

Spatio-temporal analysis of formaldehyde and its association with atmospheric and environmental variables over the Southeast Asian region using satellite data.

This study investigates the spatio-temporal distribution of formaldehyde (HCHO) over the mainland Southeast Asian region (including Northeast India) from 2019 to 2022 using TROPOMI satellite data. HCHO is a key atmospheric trace gas which is influenced by both natural processes and anthropogenic activities. We analyze HCHO levels in relation to atmospheric species including carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and environmental factors such as land surface temperature (LST), precipitation (PPT), fire radiative power (FRP), and enhanced vegetation index (EVI). Peak levels of HCHO are particularly observed in March and April, which coincide with the dry and warm seasons and reflect seasonal variability arising from both fluctuating emission sources and regional climate patterns. Correlation analyses reveal significant associations between HCHO and CO (r = 0.727), followed by HCHO and NO2 (r = 0.577) and HCHO and LST (r = 0.539). Conversely, a negative correlation with PPT (r = - 0.233) is observed as HCHO decreases with increased precipitation due to washout. The negative correlation with EVI (r = - 0.319) is unexpected since biogenic emissions are significant contributors to HCHO. This outcome likely results from the confounding effect of precipitation. A robust multiple regression model incorporating these variables is developed which is able to explain 61.8% of the variance in HCHO. It enhances predictive capabilities facilitating the estimation of HCHO distribution and supporting air quality management efforts in the region. This research contributes to understanding the complex interactions of HCHO with atmospheric chemistry and climate variability in Southeast Asia. Insights gained from this study are crucial for informing environmental policies aimed at reducing air pollution and protecting public health in rapidly developing regions.

Can a low emission zone improve academic performance? Evidence from a natural experiment in the city of Madrid

In the last decades, various policies have been implemented to reduce air pollution exposure and improve public health outcomes. Among these, low emission zones (LEZs) have been shown to effectively enhance air quality and health outcomes. However, their potential positive externalities on other outcomes, such as academic performance, remain largely unexplored. This study examines the LEZ introduced in the city of Madrid in late 2018 and investigates its impact on the academic performance of students schooled in the designated area. Using a difference-in-differences design, we demonstrate the policy’s effectiveness in improving air quality during its first 4 years. Subsequently, we find a significant increase of 0.20 standard deviations in the average EvAU scores (a high-stakes examination for university admission) among high schools located within the LEZ, a critical advantage for students seeking entry into the most competitive university programmes. Notably, our findings reveal positive spillover effects in the surroundings of the LEZ area and a greater improvement with longer and earlier exposure to cleaner air. Overall, this study offers compelling evidence of the educational benefits resulting from the implementation of a low emission zone that successfully improves air quality.

Environmental Benefits of Innovative Photocatalytic Cementitious Road Materials

Air pollution is a prominent critical issue of vehicles. The toxic pollutants are harmful to the environment, hazardous to human health and difficult to degrade by natural means. Therefore a significant amount of efforts have been done on road pavements that directly interact with vehicles. Basing on the synergetic effect of cement and titanium dioxide discovered in recent years new road pavements were developed. In particular, photocatalytic cementitious road materials can represent a key element to improve air quality, thanks to their ability to accelerate the natural reaction of oxidation. This paper deals with the development of several types of photocatalytic cementitious road pavements, such as paving blocks, asphalt concrete filled up with a photocatalytic slurry and concrete roads. Large laboratory and field-testing programs have been conducted measuring the environmental effectiveness by means of a specific set-up and in-situ sources, respectively. Functional and mechanical tests have also been performed on the materials studied to investigate their behavior under traffic loadings. Indeed, road pavements have to guarantee both de-polluting effects and performances usually required to a road pavement wearing course, according to the current Standards. The large research activity conducted till now clearly showed the significant contribution of such innovative materials to the improvement of air quality, reducing the nitrogen oxides concentration up to 60% in some local weather conditions. They can represent a new frontier of the research aimed at reducing air pollutants, for environmental friendly solutions. The findings underline the benefits of the inclusion of titanium dioxide in concrete pavements.

Quantifying Socio-Regional Variability via Factor Analysis over China: Optimizing Residential Sector Emission Reduction Pathways

Policy synergy, the evidence-based coordination of public policies, can aid in more rapidly achieving air pollutant and carbon dioxide (CO2) emission reduction targets. Using logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) decomposition, coupling coordination degree (CCD), and geographically and temporally weighted regression (GTWR) models, we analyzed the emission characteristics, drivers, and reduction pathways of residential air pollution across 30 Chinese provinces from 2001 to 2020. The southern provinces produced more air pollution than the northern provinces, with the gap widening after 2015. In the residential sector, energy emission factors (LMDI decomposition result, 686,681.9) and population size (14,331) had greater impacts on air pollutant emissions than the energy structure, energy intensity, synergies, or GDP per capita. The GTWR analysis of the CCD mechanism indicated that hydroelectricity and urbanization enhanced coupling coordination in the southeast. Meanwhile, in the west, coupling coordination was improved by R&amp;D investment, government spending on industrial pollution control, electricity consumption, per capita cropland, temperature, and urbanization. This analysis provides a valuable reference for optimizing emission reduction strategies.

Assessing the COVID-19 Lockdown Impact on Global Air Quality: A Transportation Perspective

To address the COVID-19 pandemic, governments worldwide implemented mandatory restrictions. As an unintended consequence of these responses, significant air pollution reductions have been recorded across the world. We provide cross-national evidence on the causal impact of pandemic-induced lockdowns on air quality. Using daily air pollution data between 1 January and 31 December 2020, covering 596 major cities in 77 countries, we analyzed the data with a generalized difference-in-differences approach. The results show that lockdown restrictions reduced global concentrations of NO2 by 21~35%, PM10 by 14~26%, PM2.5 by 9~18%, CO by 6~16%, and SO2 by 5~16%, while the O3 concentrations increased by 15~29% under eight specific lockdown measures. Furthermore, a simultaneous equations model suggests that reductions in public and private mobility, measured by changes in public transportation and car ridership, partly explain the observed decreases in air pollution. These findings have significant implications for ongoing global efforts to mitigate air pollution and underscore the pivotal role of public transit in achieving this goal.

The Synergy of Pollution and Carbon Reduction by Green Fiscal Policy: A Quasi-Natural Experiment Utilizing a Pilot Program from China’s Comprehensive Demonstration Cities of Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction Fiscal Policy

Using data from 2003 to 2019 for China’s 257 cities, this quantitative research utilizes the difference-in-differences approach to evaluate the synergy of the Comprehensive Demonstration Cities of Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction Fiscal Policy on pollution and carbon reduction. The primary results are as follows. The policy successfully reduces total emissions of industrial SO2, industrial wastewater, and CO2, thus achieving the desired synergistic effect of pollution and carbon reduction. Facilitating green technological innovation and promoting industrial upgrading are the transmission mechanisms through which the synergistic effect of the policy operates. The negative effect of the policy on the total emissions of industrial SO2 and CO2 is greater in the eastern area than in the mid-western area and the impact of the policy on decreasing the total emissions of industrial SO2 is more pronounced in non-resource-based cities compared to resource-based cities. This study provides an empirical reference for green fiscal policy with respect to reducing air pollution, wastewater pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions.

Environmental factors distress housing development in nigeria and other regions of the world

A clean and healthy environment forms a crucial aspect of our daily living, which becomes a vital factor for a healthy lifestyle. Global warming, flood, deforestation, overexploitation of natural resources, climate change, pollution, among others are some of the environmental challenges that most nation is facing. This study aims to increase the consciousness of environmental factors distress housing development. The methodology used involved the analysis and review of previous related literature in reverence to the issue in Nigeria and other regions of the world with a view to develop a guide for housing development. The study looked at environmental factors in housing using Nigeria and other regions of the world as a case study. This study carried out a general overview of environmental factors in housing, environmental issues, and challenges in this area. The study used secondary sources of data from relevant literature to obtained information related to these objectives. The study also looked at the control measures to alleviate the impacts of environmental factors on housing in each continent and the way forward in building a sustainable environment. The results from the finding shows that promoting effective clean housing production, reduction of noise, water and air pollution, and reduction of solid waste, will alleviate environmental issues in cities around the globe. Also, effectively improving the environmental consciousness of people will significantly reduce environmental factors distress housing development in Nigeria and other regions of the world. The study recommended and concluded that there is a need to focus on designing eco-friendly buildings, sustainable building operations, and limiting the negative impacts of housing on the environment, such as noise, air, and water reduction and focusing on nature conservation.

Electric Vehicle Charging Station Positioning Problem: Multi-Criteria Decision Making Analysis with Entropy, CoCoSo and EDAS Methods

The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) underscores the critical need for an efficient and sustainable charging infrastructure. This study addresses the problem of optimal electric vehicle charging station (EVCS) location selection using a multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) approach. Specifically, the Entropy, CoCoSo (Combined Compromise Solution), and EDAS (Evaluation Based on Distance from Average Solution) methods were applied to evaluate 25 potential locations in Altıeylül. The Entropy method was first employed to objectively determine the weight of each criterion based on their variability, ensuring that more significant factors had a greater impact on the final decision. Environmental, technical, and social criteria were incorporated to ensure that the selected sites would maximize accessibility, reduce air pollution, and enhance user convenience. The results revealed that Location_17 emerged as the top choice for EVCS placement based on both CoCoSo and EDAS rankings. While both methods provided consistent results for high-performing locations, significant discrepancies were observed for certain low-performing sites, highlighting the value of combining multiple MCDM methods. This study provides an informed framework for selecting optimal EVCS locations, offering a balanced evaluation of criteria, and contributes to the growing body of research on sustainable infrastructure planning for EVs.

Ecological tax on industrial air pollution and its impact on reducing emissions in the cement industry: a case study of Lafarge Holcim cement company in Algeria

This study aims to highlight the importance of ecological tax in reducing air pollution caused by the cement industry. The focus is on limiting the emissions resulting from cement dust and polluting gases surrounding the Lafarge Holcim cement plant and its neighboring areas. The study explores the Algerian laws and decrees regulating the ecological tax on industrial air pollution, specifically the limits on dust and gas emissions set by Executive Decree No. 138/06, which governs the emission of dust, solid and liquid particles, and gases into the atmosphere. Among the key findings, the effectiveness of the ecological tax in reducing the amount of gas and cement dust emissions into the air surrounding the factory was evident. This includes gases such as sulfur oxides (SOX), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NOX). As a result, the company adopted an environmentally sustainable policy, investing in cleaner production technologies aimed at reducing greenhouse gases and cement dust emissions. This approach aligns with the ecological tax on industrial air pollution and demonstrates Lafarge Holcim's commitment to environmental sustainability.