Reduce Child Marriage Research Articles

Correlates of Child Marriage in Zimbabwe

In countries where child marriage remains widespread, concerted efforts are underway to eliminate it, but overall progress remains uneven and slow. One in three Zimbabwean girls marries by age 18. To inform the country’s efforts to reduce child marriage, data from 5,542 women aged 20 to 24 years in the 2005-2006, 2010-2011, and 2015 Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Surveys are used to examine individual-, household-, and cluster-level correlates. Cumulative incidence functions first document changes over time, and multilevel models are used to explore correlates. Although prevalence is high, younger cohorts were less likely to marry young. A woman’s education, wealth quintile, religion, and provincial residence correlated with marrying as a child. Cluster-level female schooling, number of children ever born, and proportions using contraceptives were also correlated with child marriage. Efforts should promote socioeconomic well-being and target cultural practices promoting the practice. Interventions targeting at-risk women should complement universal approaches to combating child marriage.

The Samata Intervention to Increase Secondary School Completion and Reduce Child Marriage Among Adolescent Girls: Results from a Cluster-Randomised Control Trial in India

Background: Secondary education and delayed marriage provide long-term socio-economic and health benefits to adolescent girls. We tested whether a multi-level, structural and norms-based intervention could reduce secondary school drop-out and child marriage among rural, marginalised adolescent girls in southern India. Methods: 80 of 121 village clusters in Vijayapura and Bagalkote districts, Karnataka State, were randomly selected (40 intervention; 40 control). Scheduled-caste/scheduled-tribe girls aged 12-13 years in the final year of primary school were enrolled into the study. The primary trial outcomes were the proportion of girls who (i) completed secondary school and (ii) were married, by trial end-line (15-16 years). Findings: 92.6% (2257/2457) of girls at baseline and 72.8% (1788/2457) at end-line were interviewed. At end-line, a quarter had not completed secondary school (control=24.9%/intervention=25.4%), and 10% were married (control=9.6%/intervention=10.1%). These were lower than expected, with no difference between arms. There was no difference in other schooling or sexual and reproductive outcomes by trial arm. Stratified by district, there were small but significant increases in secondary school completion (control=73%; intervention=77%) among girls in Vijayapura. Interpretation: Low school drop-out and marriage rates reflect large secular changes and government programming during our trial. This makes it difficult to assess the value of the intervention overall or the value of this approach in settings where school dropout and child marriage are persistently high. Further research is needed to explore interventions for the substantial minority of girls who remain at risk of marriage and school drop-out in this setting. Funding Statement: Project Samata was funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) as part of STRIVE, a 6-year programme of research and action devoted to tackling the structural drivers of HIV and ViiV Healthcare. Declaration of Interests: The authors confirm no conflicting interests. Ethics Approval Statement: This work complies with the Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health code. The study was approved by ethics committees at St John’s Medical College, Bangalore (Ref 111/2013), LSHTM (Ref 7083), and the University of Manitoba (Ref H2014:414).

Inequality and Mother's Age as Determinants of Breastfeeding Continuation in Bangladesh.

The World Health Organization recommends continuing breastfeeding up to 2 years of age or beyond for sound growth and development of children. In Bangladesh, continuation rates for breastfeeding have recently decreased and effective measures are required to counter this downward trend. Although recent years have seen economic development and reductions in poverty, Bangladesh still has the highest rate of child marriage worldwide. Thus, we aimed to clarify the factors influencing breastfeeding continuation, especially from the perspective of inequality and mother's age in Bangladesh, using data from the Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2011. Event history analyses were performed during a 24-month follow-up period on 7,041 mothers with duration of breastfeeding as the outcome variable, with wealth index (an indicator for inequality) and mother's age used as the main explanatory variables. The results showed that poorer mothers were on the whole more likely to continue breastfeeding through 24 months after childbirth, and younger mothers were less likely to continue breastfeeding particularly past the first year. However, both younger and older mothers continued breastfeeding to the same extent within the first year after childbirth. Mother's age had time-varying effects on breastfeeding continuation, meaning that the effects on breastfeeding continuation were affected by the child's age. These findings imply that policymakers should be aware that efforts to reduce child marriage may increase the rate of breastfeeding continuation beyond the first year after childbirth. In contrast, efforts at poverty alleviation, aimed at preventing child marriage, may decrease the rate irrespective of the child's age.

Early menarche: A systematic review of its effect on sexual and reproductive health in low- and middle-income countries.

BackgroundAdolescent girls aged 15–19 bear a disproportionate burden of negative sexual and reproductive health outcomes in low- and middle-income countries. Research from several high-income countries suggests that early age at menarche is an important determinant of sexual and reproductive health. We conducted this systematic review to better understand whether and how early menarche is associated with various negative sexual and reproductive health outcomes in low- and middle-income countries and the implications of such associations.MethodsWe systematically searched eight health and social sciences databases for peer-reviewed literature on menarche and sexual and reproductive health in low- and middle-income countries. Two reviewers independently assessed all studies for inclusion, overall quality and risk of bias, and performed data extraction on all included studies.ResultsTwenty-four articles met all inclusion criteria–nine of moderate quality and fifteen with several methodological weaknesses. Our review of the minimal existing literature showed that early menarche is associated with early sexual initiation, early pregnancy and some sexually transmitted infections in low- and middle-income countries, similar to what has been observed in high-income countries. Early menarche is also associated with early marriage–an association that may have particularly important implications for countries with high child marriage rates.ConclusionsEarly age at menarche may be an important factor affecting the sexual and reproductive health of adolescent girls and young women in low- and middle-income countries. More research is needed to confirm the existence of the identified associations across different settings and to better understand the process through which early menarche and other markers of early pubertal development may contribute to the increased vulnerability of girls to negative sexual and reproductive health outcomes in low- and middle-income countries. Given the association of early menarche with early marriage, ongoing efforts to reduce child marriage may benefit from targeting efforts to early maturing girls.

Building the foundations for sustainable development: a case for global investment in the capabilities of adolescents

Investment in the capabilities of the world's 1·2 billion adolescents is vital to the UN's Sustainable Development Agenda. We examined investments in countries of low income, lower-middle income, and upper-middle income covering the majority of these adolescents globally to derive estimates of investment returns given existing knowledge. The costs and effects of the interventions were estimated by adapting existing models and by extending methods to create new modelling tools. Benefits were valued in terms of increased gross domestic product and averted social costs. The initial analysis showed high returns for the modelled interventions, with substantial variation between countries and with returns generally higher in low-income countries than in countries of lower-middle and upper-middle income. For interventions targeting physical, mental, and sexual health (including a human papilloma virus programme), an investment of US$4·6 per capita each year from 2015 to 2030 had an unweighted mean benefit to cost ratio (BCR) of more than 10·0, whereas, for interventions targeting road traffic injuries, a BCR of 5·9 (95% CI 5·8-6·0) was achieved on investment of $0·6 per capita each year. Interventions to reduce child marriage ($3·8 per capita each year) had a mean BCR of 5·7 (95% CI 5·3-6·1), with the effect high in low-income countries. Investment to increase the extent and quality of secondary schooling is vital but will be more expensive than other interventions-investment of $22·6 per capita each year from 2015 to 2030 generated a mean BCR of 11·8 (95% CI 11·6-12·0). Investments in health and education will not only transform the lives of adolescents in resource-poor settings, but will also generate high economic and social returns. These returns were robust to substantial variation in assumptions. Although the knowledge base on the impacts of interventions is limited in many areas, and a major research effort is needed to build a more complete investment framework, these analyses suggest that comprehensive investments in adolescent health and wellbeing should be given high priority in national and international policy.

Has Child Marriage Declined in sub‐Saharan Africa? An Analysis of Trends in 31 Countries

Age at marriage is rising throughout sub-Saharan Africa. The singulate mean age at marriage is now greater than 18 in the vast majority of countries in the region and in all of the countries included in our analysis (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division 2015). Even so sub-Saharan Africa has the highest rates of child marriage in the world and previous studies have estimated that more than half of girls marry before age 18 in many countries in the region (Singh and Samara 1996; Mensch Singh and Casterline 2006). Measuring trends in the prevalence of child marriage over time is important for understanding where the practice is most common and for evaluating the effectiveness of efforts to eliminate it. However measuring age at marriage in sub-Saharan Africa is difficult. Unlike Western marriages which are often unambiguously dated by a ceremony the signing of legal documents and civil registration marriage in sub-Saharan Africa is often described as a process consisting of multiple stages including legitimized sexual relations cohabitation and ceremonies. The process can be lengthy and the various stages occur in different sequences across ethnic and social groups (van de Walle and Meekers 1994; Locoh 1994; Arnaldo 2004). If several events are required to solidify a union it may be unclear when the union was formalized. (excerpt)

A Look at the Phenomenon of Child Marriage in Iran and the World

The recent statistics indicates child marriage has been a global concern especially in low and medium countries, so that more than 700 million of women were married before 18 years of age and out of them more than a third were less than 15 years. There is gender inequality in child marriage, so that it is more observed in girls (1). Some causes are introduced for incidence of child marriage including poverty and financial debility, extension of social network, and protection of girls against rape and violence (2). The consequences of child marriage are often far wider than just their impact on the individual children affected. The marriage of children has negative effects on families and communities. The practice thrives on poverty and impacts adversely on a country’s health and educational sector (1-3). Indeed child marriage in girls resulted in early pregnancy, social isolation, school dropout, reducing employment opportunities and increasing of domestic violence (3). According to important role of child marriage as a pivotal barrier in social and economic development, we encouraged that to write present letter. The letter aimed to provide a comparison of child marriage statistics in Iran and other parts of world, in addition to suggest some well-established solutions for reducing child marriage.

Zumrotin K. Susilo: Encouraging Local Laws after the Rejection of Impeachment of 1974 Marriage Law by Constitutional Court: Strategy to reduce Child Marriage

Zumrotin K. Susilo: Encouraging Local Laws after the Rejection of Impeachment of 1974 Marriage Law by Constitutional Court: Strategy to reduce Child Marriage

Supporting adolescent girls to stay in school, reduce child marriage and reduce entry into sex work as HIV risk prevention in north Karnataka, India: protocol for a cluster randomised controlled trial.

BackgroundLow caste adolescent girls living in rural northern Karnataka are at increased risk of school drop-out, child marriage, and entry into sex-work, which enhances their vulnerability to HIV, early pregnancy and adverse maternal and child health outcomes. This protocol describes the evaluation of Samata, a comprehensive, multi-level intervention designed to address these structural drivers of HIV risk and vulnerability.Methods/DesignThe Samata study is a cluster randomised controlled trial that will be conducted in eighty village clusters (40 intervention; 40 control) in Bijapur and Bagalkot districts in northern Karnataka. The intervention seeks to reach low caste girls and their families; adolescent boys; village communities; high school teachers and school governing committees; and local government officials. All low caste (scheduled caste/tribe) adolescent girls attending 7th standard (final year of primary school) will be recruited into the study in two consecutive waves, one year apart. Girls (n = 2100), their families (n = 2100) and school teachers (n = 650) will be interviewed at baseline and at endline. The study is designed to assess the impact of the intervention on four primary outcomes: the proportion of low caste girls who (i) enter into secondary school; (ii) complete secondary school; (iii) marry before age 15; and (iv) engage in sex before age 15. Observers assessing the outcomes will be blinded to group assignment. The primary outcome will be an adjusted, cluster-level intention to treat analysis, comparing outcomes in intervention and control villages at follow-up. We will also conduct survival analyses for the following secondary outcomes: marriage, sexual debut, pregnancy and entry into sex work. Complementary monitoring and evaluation, qualitative and economic research will be used to explore and describe intervention implementation, the pathways through which change occurs, and the cost-effectiveness of the intervention.DiscussionThis is an innovative trial of a comprehensive intervention to improve the quality of life and reduce HIV vulnerability among marginalised girls in northern Karnataka. The findings will be of interest to programme implementers, policy makers and evaluation researchers working in the development, education, and sexual and reproductive health fields.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.Gov NCT01996241. 16th November 2013.

An Evidence Review of Gender-Integrated Interventions in Reproductive and Maternal-Child Health

Evidence-based behavior change interventions addressing gender dynamics must be identified and disseminated to improve child health outcomes. Interventions were identified from systematic searches of the published literature and a web-based search (Google and implementer's websites). Studies were eligible if an intervention addressed gender dynamics (i.e., norms, unequal access to resources), measured relevant behavioral outcomes (e.g., family planning, antenatal care, nutrition), used at least a moderate evaluation design, and were implemented in low- or middle-income countries. Of the 23 interventions identified, 22 addressed reproductive and maternal-child health behaviors (e.g., birth spacing, antenatal care, breastfeeding) that improve child health. Eight interventions were accommodating (i.e., acknowledged, but did not seek to change gender dynamics), and 15 were transformative (i.e., sought to change gender dynamics). The majority of evaluations (n = 12), including interventions that engaged men and women to modify gender norms, had mixed effects. Evidence was most compelling for empowerment approaches (i.e., participatory action for maternal-child health; increase educational and economic resources, and modify norms to reduce child marriage). Two empowerment approaches had sufficient evidence to warrant scaling-up. Research is needed to assess promising approaches, particularly those that engage men and women to modify gender norms around communication and decision making between spouses.

English

Child marriage is a strong social custom, particularly for girls in Bangladesh. There are many reasons for child marriage. But most vital reasons among them are poverty, superstition, lack of social security and lack of awareness. According to UNICEF report, ‘the State of the World’s Children, 2009’, “Early marriage is pervasive in Bangladesh, with 64 percent of girls married before age 18. Early pregnancy often results from child marriage; one-third of girls aged 15 to 19 in Bangladesh are currently either mothers or pregnant.” Although child marriage is prohibited legally, but occurrences of child marriage are still happening in rural areas of Bangladesh. According to the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 the minimum legal age for marriage is 18 years for females in Bangladesh. Along with this Act child marriage is punishable by law. The right to free and full consent to a marriage is recognized in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and in many subsequent human rights instruments – consent that cannot be ‘free and full’ when at least one partner is very immature. Bangladesh also acceded to the UN Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages on 5 October, 1998. These laws, however, have little impact on the frequency of child marriage in Bangladesh. Laws should be enforced to discourage child marriage; however, legal actors alone are insufficient. Social awareness programmes may also be effective in deterring child marriage. To prevent child marriage, a wide range of individuals and organizations need to create awareness among people, particularly the poor. Especially, parents and government can play main role in reducing child marriage. An environment should be ensured where children get  proper care and facility to grow up completely and properly. This paper attempts to present the socio-economic and physical consequences of girl child marriage and its legal protection with awareness level of parents in rural Bangladesh.    Key words: Child marriage, consequence, law, awareness. &nbsp

Factors Responsible for Early and Forced Marriage in Iran

Child marriage directly impact girls’ education, health, psychological well-being, and the health of their offspring. This qualitative study was carried out to investigate the causes of this silent health issue in village of Hervi, Tabriz, Iran. Data was collected by participating 60 students and their parents using focus group discussions and interviews and then analysed by applying content analysis. Results showed that the most important reason was cultural, traditional issues which driven by poverty and low awareness of the respondents about risk of child marriage. One of the most effective methods of reducing child marriage and its health consequences is mandating that girls stay in school.

Legislating Social Change in an Islamic Society-Indonesia's Marriage Law

In 1974 Indonesia, the world's most populace Islamic country, passed a National Marriage Act,1 the first legislative revision of the country's marriage and divorce law. Prior to the passage of the law, the marriage and divorce of Indonesia's majority Muslim population was governed exclusively by the unamended rules of Islamic law. Although a statute passed in 1946 required registration of marriages, reconciliations, and divorces, prior to 1974 there had been no legislative interference with the substance of Islamic marriage rules. Among the government's purposes in proposing marriage legislation were limiting arbitrary divorce and polygamy and eliminating or reducing child marriage.2 To accomplish those objectives the Act restricted a Muslim husband's power unilaterally to repudiate his wife or to take a second wife by requiring judicial approval and statutory grounds for both divorce and polygamy. The Act also required that marriage be based on the consent of the parties, that persons marrying under the age of 21 have parental consent to marry, and imposed a minimum marriage age of 16 for girls and 19 for boys.