Reduce Labor Requirements Research Articles

Improved in vitro rooting in liquid culture using a two piece scaffold system.

Plant tissue culture techniques have been used to propagate horticultural crops at a commercial scale for more than three decades. However, due to the high cost it is generally only used for high value crops. To increase production efficiency and make micropropagation viable for a wider range of species, new approaches to address key steps of the process with high labor inputs need to be evaluated. For this study, a two‐piece scaffold system was designed, prototyped using 3D printing, and tested to physically hold plants upright thereby facilitating liquid based rooting. This system was evaluated with Malus domestica, Betula lenta, and Musa sp. using static liquid culture as well as rocker based temporary immersion system and compared to rooting in semi‐solid based medium as is commonly practiced. Significantly, earlier rooting was observed in all three species in liquid when compared to semi‐solid culture system, and plants cultured in liquid on the rocker generally performed better than those in static liquid. In addition to quicker, more uniform rooting, reducing labor requirements, and preventing root damage. This newly designed system is simple, easy to use, will help to improve efficiency, and reduce the cost of micropropagation.

Perspectives on Perennial Grain Crop Production among Organic and Conventional Farmers in France and the United States

Perennial grain crops are currently being developed, yet little is known about farmer interest in these new crops. We conducted an online survey in France and the United States to evaluate interest in perennial grains. Results show that 57% of the farmers who responded reported they were “interested” or “very interested” in growing perennial grains, whereas 41% reported they needed more information. Respondents consistently ranked “to increase or maintain farm profitability” and “to improve soil health” among the top reasons why they were interested in growing perennial grains. Reasons why farmers were interested, as well as their concerns about growing perennial grains, differed by country and farm type (i.e., conventional vs. organic). More farmers in France than in the United States ranked “to reduce labor requirements”, and more conventional farmers than organic farmers ranked “to reduce inputs” among their top reasons for their interest. Farmers were also asked about integration strategies and management. More farmers in the United States than in France and more conventional farmers than organic farmers reported that they were interested in dual-purpose perennial crops that can be harvested for both grain and forage. Results from this survey can guide future perennial grain research and development.

Effect of Irrigation Threshold on Crop Performances in Wet Seeded Rice

Decreasing availability and increasing costs of water and labour are driving researchers and farmers to find management strategies that increase input water productivity and reduce labour requirement in rice production. Wet seeding instead of transplanting greatly reduces the labour requirement for crop establishment, whereas use of alternate wetting and drying (AWD) instead of continuous flooding reduces irrigation input. However, the safe threshold for irrigating wet seeded rice (WSR), and how this varies with growth stage, has not been established. Therefore, a greenhouse experiment was conducted to determine the effects of different degrees of irrigation threshold during different crop growth stages on crop performance of WSR. This was done in greenhouse experiment in the 2011 wet season at the International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines. In the experiments, water stresses were applied by withholding irrigation until soil water tension increased to 10, 20 or 40 kPa at 10 cm below the soil surface. Soil water tension was measured using 30 cm long gauge tensiometer installed with the center of the ceramic cup. The stresses were applied during three crop stages: 3-leaf (3L) to panicle initiation (PI), PI to flowering (FL), and FL to physiological maturity (PM). The experiment was also included a continuously flooded (CF) treatment. Stress during 3L to PI increased the time to PI (by 2 to 4 days) but reduced the duration of grain filling by 3 to 5 days, the larger values with 20 and 40 kPa thresholds. There was no effect of stress thresholds of 10 to 40 kPa during PI-FL on crop duration. Stress during grain filling reduced the duration of grain filling by 6 days for all thresholds. Stresses of 20 and 40 kPa during 3L to PI reduced green leaf and tiller density at PI, but this effect disappeared with the imposition of CF after PI. There were consistent trends for lower final biomass as the level of water deficit stress increased, and imposition of stresses of 20 and 40 kPa at any or all three stages significantly reduced biomass compared with CF. These results suggest that, for shortening the ripening period, water stress may be imposed as 10 to 20 kPa during FL to PM.
 Bangladesh Rice j. 2018, 22(1): 73-81

Applying two-phase adaptive genetic algorithm to solve multi-model assembly line balancing problems in TFT–LCD module process

The module process is labor-intensive in the thin film transistor–liquid crystal display (TFT–LCD) industry because of the difficulty in applying automation to this process as compared with array, color filter, and cell processes. The module process is also considered a multi-model assembly line, which means several models from a basic product family are manufactured simultaneously. Therefore, a module process with integrated arrangement and line-balancing can reduce labor requirements and increase production efficiency. This research considered several practical characteristics of the TFT–LCD module process, including multi-skilled workers and operator efficiency, to address the resource-constrained multi-model assembly line balancing problem. A novel mathematical programming model is proposed to obtain the optimal allocation of tasks, workers, machines, and workstations. A heuristic two-phase approach based on the adaptive genetic algorithm is developed to address this NP-hard problem. Data from the TFT–LCD module factories in Taiwan are applied to evaluate the performance of the proposed approach based on the design of experiments and response surface method. This study integrated theoretical research and practical applications for the assembly line balancing problem in the TFT–LCD module process. Hence, from the results, the production efficiency can be improved and the cost can be reduced, which can enhance the global competitiveness of TFT–LCD manufacturers.

Rolled–crimped cereal rye residue suppresses white mold in no-till soybean and dry bean

AbstractWhite mold caused by the fungus,Sclerotinia sclerotiorumis a devastating disease of soybean (Glycine max) and other leguminous crops, including dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). Previous research has demonstrated that no-till planting soybean into rolled–crimped cereal rye residue can enhance weed management, improve soil health and reduce labor requirements in organic production. However, there are limited data on the effects of cereal rye residue on white mold suppression in no-till planted soybean and dry bean. Two field trials were conducted in 2016–2017 (Year 1) and repeated in 2017–2018 (Year 2) to evaluate the potential of cereal rye cover crop residue to suppress white mold in these crops. In each trial (soybean and dry bean), the experimental design was a randomized complete block with two treatments: (1) rolled–crimped cereal rye residue and (2) no cover crop control. Treatment effects on plant population, biomass and yield components varied between the main crops. Compared with the control treatment, cereal rye residue reduced the incidence of white mold in soybean in both years and in dry bean in Year 2. The reduction in white mold in cereal rye residue plots was due to a combination of (1) decreased sclerotial germination (no stipes formed) and (2) increased nonfunctional sclerotial germination defined here as sclerotia that germinated but produced stipes without the expanded cup where asci containing ascospores are formed. Weed density and biomass were lower in cereal rye residue plots in soybean and dry bean, except in Year 1 in soybean when weed biomass was low in both treatments. Our findings indicate that cereal rye residue could help organic and conventional farmers manage white mold in no-till planted soybean and dry bean. Germination of sclerotia resulting in nonfunctional apothecia could potentially exhaust soilborne inoculum in the upper soil profile and reduce infections in subsequent crops.

Design and simulation of an integrated end-effector for picking kiwifruit by robot

The harvesting of fresh kiwifruit is a labor-intensive operation that accounts for more than 25% of annual production costs. Mechanized harvesting technologies are thus being developed to reduce labor requirements for harvesting kiwifruit. To improve the efficiency of a harvesting robot for picking kiwifruit, we designed an end-effector, which we report herein along with the results of tests to verify its operation. By using the established method of automated picking discussed in the literature and which is based on the characteristics of kiwifruit, we propose an automated method to pick kiwifruit that consists of separating the fruit from its stem on the tree. This method is experimentally verified by using it to pick clustered kiwifruit in a scaffolding canopy cultivation. In the experiment, the end-effector approaches a fruit from below and then envelops and grabs it with two bionic fingers. The fingers are then bent to separate the fruit from its stem. The grabbing, picking, and unloading processes are integrated, with automated picking and unloading performed using a connecting rod linkage following a trajectory model. The trajectory was analyzed and validated by using a simulation implemented in the software Automatic Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical Systems (ADAMS). In addition, a prototype of an end-effector was constructed, and its bionic fingers were equipped with fiber sensors to detect the best position for grabbing the kiwifruit and pressure sensors to ensure that the damage threshold was respected while picking. Tolerances for size and shape were incorporated by following a trajectory groove from grabbing and picking to unloading. The end-effector separates clustered kiwifruit and automatically grabs individual fruits. It takes on average 4–5 s to pick a single fruit, with a successful picking rate of 94.2% in an orchard test featuring 240 samples. This study shows the grabbing–picking–unloading robotic end-effector has significant potential to facilitate the harvesting of kiwifruit.

Income Diversification and Sustainable Land Management Practices among Rural Cassava-based Farmers in Imo State

Aims: To examine the income diversification activities and sustainable land management practices among rural cassava-based farmers in Imo State, Nigeria.
 Study Design: Primary data collection.
 Place and Duration of Study: Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Pre-requisite study, Post-Graduation in Agricultural Resource and Environmental Economics, between August 2017 and January 2018.
 Methodology: Data were collected using well-structured questionnaire, administered to rural cassava-based farmers. Multi-stage and purposive sampling techniques were employed, and one hundred and twenty (120) farmers were randomly selected for the study. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Sustainable Land Management Index, Probit model and Inverse Herfindahl–Hirschman Diversity Index. The sustainable land management index (SLMI) was constructed from twelve (12) different sustainable land management indicators based on the sustainable practices prevalent in the study area.
 Results: Results showed that cassava-based production was dominated by female farmers (63.33%) with mean age of 46, married (70.00%) with mean household size of 6 persons. The Inverse Herfindahl-Hirschman Diversity (IHHD) results showed that 87.50% of rural cassava-based farmers diversified their income base into other income-generating activities namely, off-farm and/or non-farm activities. The mean naira value for on-farm income was N 130,646.2k, while that of off-farm and non-farm were N 20,554.17k and N 78,333.33k, respectively. Cassava-based farmers diversified mostly into non-farm activities together with their on-farm activities, with a mean annual income (in naira) of N244,333.60k. The probit analysis showed that off-farm and non-farm activities have positive and significant effects on sustainable land management practices. The off-farm and non-farm activities encouraged the rural cassava-based farmers to adapt sustainable land management practices. However, doubling farmer’s engagement to off-farm activities (off-farm2) had a negative effect on sustainable land management, indicating that doubling their engagement to off-farm activities empowers farmers to adapt unsustainable labour-saving practices such over use of agrochemicals (herbicides, inorganic fertilizers and insecticides), due to drudgery and exhaustion as they allocate more of their labour services to another farmer’s farm.
 Conclusion: In order to improve the adoption and adaption of sustainable land management practices, and reduce the drudgery in cassava production as farmers diversify more into off-farm activities, sustainable labour-saving technologies and practices such as conservation tillage and simple tools that reduce labour requirement in cassava production, save time and energy, were recommended. More lands should be allocated to cassava farmers, as farm land diversity will facilitate the adoption and adaption of sustainable land management practices such as fallowing and crop rotation that increase productivity by replacing fallow periods with growing different crops that replenish soil nutrients.

Performance of Concrete-Filled Steel Tube Bridge Columns Subjected to Vehicle Collision

Collision of vehicles into RC bridge columns can result in significant damage to individual bridge components, leading to partial or full collapse of the entire bridge. Among various alternatives to RC columns, concrete-filled steel tubes (CFSTs) have received growing attention because of their rapid construction, reduced labor requirement, and reasonable material cost. Despite the promise of this alternative, however, there is a gap in the existing literature concerning the measures that can be used for the analysis and design of this important category of bridge columns subjected to impact loads. To address this gap, a detailed investigation is conducted in the current study, using a set of impact simulations. For this purpose, representative finite-element (FE) models are developed and validated with the experimental test results. To make a direct comparison possible, the numerical simulations include both CFST and RC columns under a range of vehicle impact scenarios. The structural performance is evaluated using a comprehensive set of measures, including peak dynamic force (PDF) and equivalent static force (ESF). On establishing the necessary metrics, the current study provides a systematic effort to examine the contribution of the main analysis and design parameters to the impact response of the columns under consideration. Based on the simulation results, the sufficiency of the current specifications is evaluated, and a generalized equation is proposed to predict the ESF for CFST columns.

Development of a rapid viability polymerase chain reaction method for detection of Yersinia pestis

Due to the occurrence of natural plague outbreaks and its historical usage as a biological weapon, Yersinia pestis is considered one of the high-priority biological threat agents. It can remain viable in certain environments including water for >100 days. Because of its slow-growth characteristic, it usually takes three or more days to detect and confirm the identity of viable Y. pestis cells by PCR, serological, or biochemical assays when using the traditional microbiological plate-culture-based analysis, and that too, assuming faster growing microbes present in a water sample do not mask the Y. pestis colonies and interfere with analysis. Therefore, a rapid-viability Polymerase Chain Reaction (RV-PCR) method was developed for detection of Y. pestis. The RV-PCR method combines 24 h-incubation broth culture in a 48-well plate, and pre- and post-incubation differential PCR analyses, thereby allowing for rapid and high-throughput sample analysis compared with the current plate culture method. One chromosomal and two plasmid gene target-based real-time PCR assays were down-selected, showing ca. 10 genome equivalent detection; the chromosomal assay was then used for RV-PCR method development. A 101-cell level (10–99 cells) sensitivity of detection was demonstrated even with complex sample backgrounds including known PCR inhibitors (ferrous sulfate and humic acid), as well as metal oxides and microbes present in Arizona Test Dust (ATD). The method sensitivity was maintained in the presence of dead Y. pestis cells up to 104 cells per sample. While affording high-throughput and rapid sample analysis, the 48-well plate format used in this method for sample enrichment significantly reduced labor requirements and generation of BioSafety Level-3 (BSL-3) laboratory waste as compared to the usual microbiological plate-culture-based methods. This method may serve as a model for other vegetative bacterial pathogens.

Nutritional Benefit and Economic Value of Hydroponics Fodder Production Technology in Sustainable Livestock Production Against Climate Change - A Mini-Review

In many parts of the world, production of sufficient green fodder and grain to feed the livestock population has become a big challenge. This is due to limited land allocation, fertilizer and manure requirements for cultivation, lack of irrigation facilities and natural calamity. To overcome this problem, hydroponics fodder production technology is an emerging as alternative to grow sufficient quality fodder and some parts of concentrate in livestock farms. Hydroponic fodder production is a method of fodder production, in which fodder seeds are germinated into a high quality, highly nutritious, disease free animal food in a hygienic environment. It is also more palatable and digestible and can be grown in low cost devices with locally home grown grains. Moreover, it is advantageous in terms of nutritional benefit and economic value, constant food supply year-round, marginal land use, reduced labour requirement and natural feed for animals. However, there is a big gap and no adequate compiled information that clearly indicates the importance of hydroponics fodder production for sustainable livestock production against climate change. Therefore, it is important to review the aspect thoroughly and bring minor details into focus to have better understanding of hydroponics fodder production for sustainable livestock production against climate change.

Natural and Synthetic Mulching Materials for Weed Control in Immature Rubber Plantations

Weed control is important during immature stage of rubber plantations particularly, before fertilizer application. Most of the chemicals are being restricted due to health and environmental concerns thus investigations on chemical free weed control methods are important. The effect of different natural and synthetic mulching materials on weed control was studied compared to manual weeding. Oil palm Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB) was used as natural mulch and shade net and polythene were used as synthetic mulch. Labor requirement in each treatment was evaluated. Effect of mulching on soil nitrogen content, pH, organic carbon content and cation exchange capacity was also measured at three months and one year after treatment application. All the mulching treatments showed significant weed control compared to the control. Since, weed regeneration was observed in oil palm EFB treatment from ten weeks of its application, it was applied again in three months intervals. There were no weeds observed in both in shade net and polythene mulch treatments from four weeks of their application up to one year period. All the mulching treatments reduced labor requirement compared to the control. Organic carbon content was significantly improved by mulching while other soil parameters were not affected compared to the control. Shade net and polythene could be effectively used for weed management and they will be beneficial under labor shortage. Oil palm EFB is effective for weed control with labor saving and it has to be applied in three months intervals. However, there will be no environmental pollution with Oil palm EFB mulch as it is a natural waste material.

Economic evaluation of transplant robots for plant cuttings

Transplanting of unrooted plant cuttings to produce rooted liner trays is a manufacturing process that requires considerable manual labor. However, increasing labor cost and reduced labor availability has increased interest in automation. The objective was to evaluate return on investment of transplanting robots, and identify key factors that businesses should consider when purchasing a transplanting robot. Data on labor costs, cuttings transplanted, and costs of automated transplanting were surveyed at six greenhouse firms. The resulting average scenario assumed an annual labor cost of $408,377 to manually transplant 29.3 million (M) cuttings at $12.49 per hour, resulting in a cost of $0.014 per cutting. An investment of $125,000 in one transplant robot operated for up to 76 h per week (2 shifts) had an annualized cost of $70,270 ($6,250 cost of ownership and $64,020 labor cost for robot operators). The robot could transplant 7.2 M cuttings per year (25% of the total), at an average cost of $0.010 per cutting compared with $0.014 for manual transplanting. With these assumptions, over 10 years the transplant robot would yield an annual cash flow saving of $29,891 a Net Present Value (NPV) of $105,807 and a discounted payback period of 4.8 years. Each transplant robot would reduce labor requirements during the peak week by two full time equivalent workers (3% of total workforce). Sensitivity analysis showed investment in automatic transplanting was increasingly profitable with a high local wage, and low manual labor efficiency (few cuttings per workers). There were economies of scale when more than one robot was used. Greater efficiency resulted from increasing hours of robot operation during the peak period, and in operations where cuttings were transplanted throughout the year. Results can be used to evaluate the impact of automation on labor cost and availability for the transplant process.

Effect of Water Deficit Stress on Yield Performances in Wet Seeded Rice

Worldwide fresh water scarcity and labour unavailability in agriculture are driving researchers and farmers to find management strategies that will increase water productivity and reduce labour requirement. Wet seeding instead of transplanting rice greatly reduces the labour requirement for crop establishment, while use of alternate wetting and drying (AWD) instead of continuous flooding reduces irrigation input. However, the safe threshold for irrigating wet seeded rice (WSR) at different crop stages has not been investigated. Therefore, experiment was conducted to determine the effects of different degrees of water stress during different crop growth stages on yield performance of WSR. This was done in greenhouse experiment in the 2011 wet season 2011 at the International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines. In the experiment, water stresses were applied by withholding irrigation until soil water tension increased to 10, 20 or 40 kPa (kilo pascal) at 10 cm below the soil surface. Soil water tension was measured using 30 cm long guage tensiometer installed with the center of the ceramic cup. The stresses were applied during three crop stages: 3-leaf (3L) to panicle initiation (PI), PI to flowering (FL), and FL to physiological maturity (PM). The experiment also included a continuously flooded (CF) treatment. The number of drying events ranged from 8-12 during 3L-PI, 6-10 during PI-FL and 6-10 during FL-PM. There was a consistent trend for a decline in the number of irrigations and irrigation input with increasing irrigation threshold, and thresholds of 20 and 40 kPa resulted in significantly lower input than with CF. There were consistent trends for lower grain yield as the level of water deficit stress increased, and imposition of stresses of 20 and 40 kPa at any or all three stages significantly reduced grain yield compared with CF. There was a trend for the reduction in grain yield to be greater when the stresses were imposed at all three stages compared with a single stage, but the differences were not significant. There was a consistent trend for irrigation water productivity (WPi) to decrease as the irrigation threshold increased, with significantly lower values for a 40 kPa threshold at any stage, in comparison with CF. This was because the decline in water input to the pots was less than the decline in yield as the threshold increased. The results suggest that the optimum threshold for irrigation of WSR is 10 kPa during the vegetative and grain filling stages, and that the soil should be kept at close to saturation during PI-FLBangladesh Rice j. 2017, 21(1): 1-12

Trade‐Offs in Cereal Rye Management Strategies Prior to Organically Managed Soybean

Core Ideas A field experiment was conducted to compare cereal rye management strategies. Roller‐crimping cereal rye reduced labor requirements and increased soil health. Harvesting cereal rye for ryelage maximized profitability. Spring moisture affects soybean yield in roller‐crimped systems. Three cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) management strategies for organic soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] production were compared in terms of their agronomic, soil health, and economic benefits. In central New York in 2014–2015 and again in 2015–2016, we compared (i) a “No‐cover” control treatment, in which bare soil was plowed prior to planting soybean, (ii) a “Plow‐down” treatment with cereal rye plowed at jointing stage prior to planting soybean, (iii) a “Ryelage” treatment with cereal rye harvested for forage and plowed prior to planting soybean, and (iv) a “Roll‐down” treatment with cereal rye roller‐crimped prior to no‐till planting soybean. Water infiltration and soil respiration were greater in the Roll‐down treatment compared with the No‐cover treatment; however, weed biomass in soybean was greatest in the Roll‐down treatment. Soybean yield did not differ between treatments in 2015, but yields were lower in the Roll‐down treatment in 2016, which was likely due to dry conditions in May and June. Practices used in the Roll‐down system required the least amount of labor, but harvesting cereal rye for ryelage and then using tillage before growing organic soybean maximized profitability. Our results show soil health improvement, labor reductions, and enhanced profitability from growing cereal rye before organic soybean. However, no single cover crop management strategy provided all of these benefits. More research is needed to better understand the effects of precipitation at different times, and how management can be improved to overcome trade‐offs between strategies.

On Methods for In‐Well Nitrate Monitoring Using Optical Sensors

AbstractOptical sensors are promising for collecting high resolution in‐well groundwater nitrate monitoring data. Traditional well purging methods are labor intensive, can disturb ambient conditions and yield an unknown blend of groundwater in the samples collected, and obtain samples at a limited temporal resolution (i.e., monthly or seasonally). This study evaluated the Submersible Ultraviolet Nitrate Analyzer (SUNA) for in‐well nitrate monitoring through new applications in shallow overburden and fractured bedrock environments. Results indicated that SUNA nitrate‐N concentration measurements during flow cell testing were strongly correlated (R 2 = 0.99) to purged sample concentrations. Vertical profiling of the water column identified distinct zones having different nitrate‐N concentrations in conventional long‐screened overburden wells and open bedrock boreholes. Real‐time remote monitoring revealed dynamic responses in nitrate‐N concentrations following recharge events. The monitoring platform significantly reduced labor requirements for the large amount of data produced. Practitioners should consider using optical sensors for real‐time monitoring if nitrate concentrations are expected to change rapidly, or if a site's physical constraints make traditional sampling programs challenging. This study demonstrates the feasibility of applying the SUNA in shallow overburden and fractured bedrock environments to obtain reliable data, identifies operational challenges encountered, and discusses the range of insights available to groundwater professionals so they will seek to gather high resolution in‐well monitoring data wherever possible.

Development of a Variable Rate Chemical Sprayer for Monitoring Diseases and Pests Infestation in Coconut Plantations

An image processing-based variable rate chemical sprayer for disease and pest-infested coconut plantations was designed and evaluated. The manual application of chemicals is considered risky and hazardous to workers, and provides low precision. The designed sprayer consisted of a sprayer frame, motors, a power system, a chemical tank and pump, a crane, a nozzle with a remote monitoring system, and motion and crane controlling systems. As the target was confirmed, the nozzle was moved towards the target area (tree canopy) using the remote monitoring system. The pump then sprayed chemicals to the target at a specified rate. The results suggested optimal design values for 5–9 m tall coconut trees, including the distance between nozzle and target (1 m), pressure (1.5 bar), spraying rate (2.712 L/min), the highest movement speed (1.5 km/h), fuel consumption (0.58 L/h), and working capacity (0.056 ha/h). The sprayer reduced labor requirements, prevented chemical hazards to workers, and increased coconut pest controlling efficiency.

Influence of different age seedlings mat type characteristics at different speed of self-propelled 8-row rice transplanter in district of Samastipur, Bihar, India

In south-east Asian countries, paddy is the most important cereal crop and staple food. In India, it is grown on an area of more than 41 million ha with a production of about 111 million tones of paddy. In India establishment of rice basically depends on the availability of moisture, climatic condition, age of the variety, availability of inputs and human labour. Labour shortage and labour costing is one of the major concerns to failure of scheduled transplanting of rice. To overcome, there is a need of mechanization in the field of rice cultivation by using rice transplanter as major tool in this process. The impact of different age seedlings related to paddy cultivation and its influence was studied in the farm of Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agriculture University for sustainable farming in Samastipur district. Three different age seedlings were sampled and cultivated along with all necessary cultivation requirements. The survivability and quality efficiency was measured and comparative studies were done. A strong positive correlation between seedlings age and production efficiency was observed. This practice appears useful as the results indicate high production efficiency with 26 days age seedlings transplanted with the help of self propelled 8-row rice transplanter. It can be accomplished by timely updating and application of improved technology, for instance, to uphold the quality and nutritional values of rice. Transplanting mat type seedling is becoming more popular due to its superior performance and reduced labour requirement (50 man-h/ha).

Drivers, challenges and opportunities of forage technology adoption by smallholder cattle households in Cambodia

Forage technology has been successfully introduced into smallholder cattle systems in Cambodia as an alternative feed source to the traditional rice straw and native pastures, improving animal nutrition and reducing labour requirements of feeding cattle. Previous research has highlighted the positive impacts of forage technology including improved growth rates of cattle and household time savings. However, further research is required to understand the drivers, challenges and opportunities of forage technology for smallholder cattle households in Cambodia to facilitate widespread adoption and identify areas for further improvement. A survey of forage-growing households (n=40) in July-September 2016 examined forage technology adoption experiences, including reasons for forage establishment, use of inputs and labour requirements of forage plot maintenance and use of forages (feeding, fattening, sale of grass or seedlings and silage). Time savings was reported as the main driver of forage adoption with household members spending approximately 1h per day maintaining forages and feeding it to cattle. Water availability was reported as the main challenge to this activity. A small number of households also reported lack of labour, lack of fencing, competition from natural grasses, cost of irrigation and lack of experience as challenges to forage growing. Cattle fattening and sale of cut forage grass and seedlings was not found to be a widespread activity by interviewed households, with 25 and 10% of households reporting use of forages for these activities, respectively. Currently, opportunities exist for these households to better utilise forages through expansion of forage plots and cattle activities, although assistance is required to support these households in addressing current constraints, particularly availability of water, if the sustainability of this feed technology for smallholder cattle household is to be established in Cambodia.

Automated lettuce thinners reduce labor requirements and increase speed of thinning

Salinas Valley lettuce growers are adopting automated lettuce thinners to improve labor efficiency. We conducted field studies in 2014 and 2015 to compare the time involved in automated and manual thinning of direct-seeded lettuce and any differences in lettuce quality and yield. We recorded the number of doubles (two closely spaced plants) left behind after thinning, time taken to remove the doubles, final crop stand, efficiency in weed removal, crop yield and disease incidence. Using an automated thinner in place of manual hoeing reduced the thinning labor requirement from 7.31 ± 0.5 person-hours per acre to 2.03 ± 0.5 person-hours per acre. Automated thinning left more doubles than manual thinning, resulting in additional time to remove them, but was overall more labor-efficient and had no impact on yield or disease incidence.

How climate-smart is conservation agriculture (CA)? – its potential to deliver on adaptation, mitigation and productivity on smallholder farms in southern Africa

Climate resilient cropping systems are required to adapt to the increasing threats of climate change projected for Southern Africa and to better manage current climate variability. Conservation agriculture (CA) has been proposed among technologies that are climate-smart. For a cropping system to be labelled “climate-smart” it has to deliver three benefits: a) adapt to the effects of climate and be of increased resilience; b) mitigate climate effects by sequestering carbon (C) and reducing greenhouse gas emissions (GHG); and c) sustainably increase productivity and income. Research on smallholder farms from Southern Africa was analysed to assess if CA can deliver on the three principles of climate-smart agriculture. Results from Southern Africa showed that CA systems have a positive effect on adaptation and productivity, but its mitigation potential lags far behind expectations. CA systems maintain higher infiltration rates and conserve soil moisture, which helps to overcome seasonal dry-spells. Increased productivity and profitability were recorded although a lag period of 2–5 cropping seasons is common until yield benefits become significant. Immediate economic benefits such as reduced labour requirements in some systems will make CA more attractive in the short term to farmers who cannot afford to wait for several seasons until yield benefits accrue. The available data summarizing the effects of CA on soil organic C (SOC) and reductions in greenhouse gases, are often contradictory and depend a great deal on the agro-ecological environment and the available biomass for surface residue retention. There is an urgent need for more research to better quantify the mitigation effects, as the current data are scanty. Possible co-interventions such as improved intercropping/relay cropping systems, agroforestry and other tree-based systems may improve delivery of mitigation benefits and need further exploration.