Reduced Gravity Conditions Research Articles

Effects of independently altering body weight and body mass on the metabolic cost of running

The metabolic cost of running is substantial, despite the savings from elastic energy storage and return. Previous studies suggest that generating vertical force to support body weight and horizontal forces to brake and propel body mass are the major determinants of the metabolic cost of running. In the present study, we investigated how independently altering body weight and body mass affects the metabolic cost of running. Based on previous studies, we hypothesized that reducing body weight would decrease metabolic rate proportionally, and adding mass and weight would increase metabolic rate proportionally. Further, because previous studies show that adding mass alone does not affect the forces generated on the ground, we hypothesized that adding mass alone would have no substantial effect on metabolic rate. We manipulated the body weight and body mass of 10 recreational human runners and measured their metabolic rates while they ran at 3 m s(-1). We reduced weight using a harness system, increased mass and weight using lead worn about the waist, and increased mass alone using a combination of weight support and added load. We found that net metabolic rate decreased in less than direct proportion to reduced body weight, increased in slightly more than direct proportion to added load (added mass and weight), and was not substantially different from normal running with added mass alone. Adding mass alone was not an effective method for determining the metabolic cost attributable to braking/propelling body mass. Runners loaded with mass alone did not generate greater vertical or horizontal impulses and their metabolic costs did not substantially differ from those of normal running. Our results show that generating force to support body weight is the primary determinant of the metabolic cost of running. Extrapolating our reduced weight data to zero weight suggests that supporting body weight comprises at most 74% of the net cost of running. However, 74% is probably an overestimate of the metabolic demand of body weight to support itself because in reduced gravity conditions decrements in horizontal impulse accompanied decrements in vertical impulse.

Metastable phase formation in undercooled Fe-Co melts under terrestrial and parabolic flight conditions

Soft magnetic Fe-Co alloys display primary fcc phase solidification for>19,5 at% Co in conventional near-equilibrium solidification processes. Undercooled Fe-Co melt drops within the composition range of 30 to 50 at% Co have been investigated with the electromagnetic levitation technique. The solidification kinetics was measured in situ using a high-resolution Siphotodiode. Melt drops were undercooled up to 263 K below the liquidus temperature and subsequently quenched onto a chill substrate in order to characterize the solidification sequence and microstructure. The transition from stable fcc phase to metastable bcc primary phase solidification has been observed after reaching a critical undercooling level. The critical undercooling increases with rising Co content. The growth velocity drops obviously after transition to metastable bcc phase formation. Parabolic flight experiments were performed in order to study the phase selection under reduced gravity conditions. Under microgravity conditions, a much smaller critical undercooling and an increased life time of the metastable bcc phase were obtained. This result was validated with TEM investigations. The appearance of Fe-O particles gives an indirect hint for an intermediate fcc phase formation from the metastable bcc phase at elevated temperature.

Measurements and Modeling of Variable Gravity Effects on Water Distribution and Flow in Unsaturated Porous Media

Liquid behavior under reduced gravity conditions is of considerable interest for various components of life‐support systems required for manned space missions. High costs and limited opportunities for spaceflight experiments hinder advances in reliable design and operation of elements involving fluids in unsaturated porous media such as plant growth facilities. We used parabolic flight experiments to characterize hydraulic properties under variable gravity conditions deduced from variations in matric potential over a range of water contents. We designed and tested novel measurement cells that allowed dynamic control of water content. Embedded time domain reflectometry probes and fast‐responding tensiometers measured changes in water content and matric potential. For near‐saturated conditions, we observed rapid establishment of equilibrium matric potentials during the recurring 20‐s periods of microgravity. As media water content decreased, the concurrent decrease in hydraulic diffusivity resulted in limited attainment of equilibrium distributions of water content and matric potential in microgravity, and water content heterogeneity within the sample was influenced by the preceding hypergravity phase. For steady fluxes through saturated columns, we observed linear and constant hydraulic gradients during variable gravity, yielding saturated hydraulic conductivities similar to values measured under terrestrial gravity. Our results suggest that water distribution and retention behavior are sensitive to varied gravitational forces, whereas saturated hydraulic conductivity appears to be unaffected. Comparisons between measurements and simulations based on the Richards equation were in reasonable agreement, suggesting that fundamental laws of fluid flow and distribution for macroscopic transport derived on Earth are also applicable in microgravity.

The flowability of fine powders in reduced gravity conditions

The extrapolation of Qian’s semi-theoretical relationship for the transition between cohesive and non-cohesive powder fluidization behavior into regions of low gravity is studied and a validation experiment employing fluidization is discussed. The fluidization experiment utilized fine glass and alumina powders in a fluidized bed and was flown onboard NASA’s reduced gravity aircraft. The transition region between cohesive and non-cohesive behavior is determined for the glass and alumina powders at gravity levels of 1.8, 1.0, 0.38, and 0.16 g. The results are compared to Qian’s model and show fair agreement. The fluidization experiment limitations are discussed and a rotating drum experiment that will reduce the experiment uncertainty, provide quantifiable results, and is suitable for flight onboard NASA’s reduced gravity aircraft is proposed. The rotating drum technique determines the characteristic frequency of the powder’s center of area to detect avalanching. The concept is validated by comparing the characteristic frequency obtained from analyzing a cohesive powder to the characteristic frequency obtained from analyzing a flowable powder.

Change of the kinetics of solidification and microstructure formation induced by convection in the Ni–Al system

The purpose of the present work was to measure the velocity of dendrite growth in undercooled Ni–Al alloy melts as a function of undercooling. The experiments were performed both by containerless electromagnetic levitation on Earth and under reduced gravity conditions during parabolic flight campaigns. While under terrestrial conditions, strong magnetic fields are required to compensate the gravitational force, the forces to compensate disturbing accelerations are decreased by orders of magnitude in reduced gravity. In turn, the alternating electromagnetic fields induce convection, which is strong under terrestrial conditions while much weaker in reduced gravity. The heat and mass transport in front of the solid-liquid interface during solidification controls the dynamics of dendrite growth. By comparing results obtained on Earth and in reduced gravity, it was demonstrated that the change of transport conditions by convection significantly alters the kinetics of solidification and the evolution of grain refined microstructures at undercoolings less than 100K.

Study of two-phase flows in reduced gravity using ground based experiments

Experimental studies have been carried out to support the development of a framework of the two-fluid model along with an interfacial area transport equation applicable to reduced gravity two-phase flows. The experimental study simulates the reduced gravity condition in ground based facilities by using two immiscible liquids of similar density namely, water as the continuous phase and Therminol 59® as the dispersed phase. We have acquired a total of eleven data sets in the bubbly flow and bubbly to slug flow transition regimes. These flow conditions have area-averaged void (volume) fractions ranging from 3 to 30% and channel Reynolds number for the continuous phase between 2,900 and 8,800. Flow visualization has been performed and a flow regime map developed which is compared with relevant bubbly to slug flow regime transition criteria. The comparison shows that the transition boundary is well predicted by the criterion based on critical void fraction. The value of the critical void fraction at transition was experimentally determined to be approximately 25%. In addition, important two-phase flow local parameters, including the void fraction, interfacial area concentration, droplet number frequency and droplet velocity, have been acquired at two axial locations using state-of-the-art multi-sensor conductivity probe. The radial profiles and axial development of the two-phase flow parameters show that the coalescence mechanism is enhanced by either increasing the continuous or dispersed phase Reynolds number. Evidence of turbulence induced particle interaction mechanism is highlighted. The data presented in this paper clearly show the marked differences in terms of bubble (droplet) size, phase distribution and phase interaction in two-phase flow between normal and reduced gravity conditions.

Surface Tension and Viscosity of the Ni‐based Superalloy CMSX‐4 Measured by the Oscillating Drop Method in Parabolic Flight Experiments

The surface tension and the viscosity of the Ni-based superalloy CMSX-4 were measured by the oscillating drop method on electromagnetically levitated specimen under reduced gravity conditions on a parabolic flight. The twenty seconds of reduced gravity available in a single parabola proved sufficient for melting, heating into the stable liquid and free cooling to solidification.

Microgravity flow regime data and analysis

To utilize the advantageous properties of two-phase flow in microgravity applications, the knowledge base of two-phase flow phenomena must be extended to include the effects of gravity. In the experiment described, data regarding the behavior of two-phase flow in a conduit under microgravity conditions (essentially zero gravity) are explored. Of particular interest, knowledge of the void fraction of the gas and liquid in a conduit is necessary to develop models for heat and mass transfer, pressure drop, and wall shear. An experiment was conducted under reduced gravity conditions to collect data by means of a capacitance void fraction sensor and high speed visual imagery. Independent parameters were varied to map the flow regime regions. These independent parameters include gas and liquid volumetric flow rates and saturation pressures. Void fraction measurements were taken at a rate of 100 Hz with six sensors at two locations along the conduit. Further, statistical parameters were developed from the void fraction measurements. Statistical parameters such as variance, signal-to-noise ratio, half height value, and linear area difference were calculated and found to have characteristics allowing flow regime identification.

Special Issue for 8th International Workshop on Short-Term Experiments under Strongly Reduced Gravity Conditions (DTD2006 in Japan)

Special Issue for 8th International Workshop on Short-Term Experiments under Strongly Reduced Gravity Conditions (DTD2006 in Japan)

Low‐gravity combustion synthesis: Theoretical analysis of experimental evidences

AbstractThe results obtained during a parabolic flight campaign sponsored by ESA on March 2002, and related to the combustion synthesis of TiB2 − xTiAl and TiB2 − xTiAl3 composites are reported. Besides classical SHS experiments performed using cylindrical pellets, combustion front quenching experiments using conical samples placed inside a copper block are also conducted. Similar experiments are carried out under terrestrial conditions, for the sake of comparison. As expected, under both low‐gravity and terrestrial conditions, it is found that combustion temperature and front propagation velocity decrease as the system exothermicity is reduced, that is, when the aluminide/diboride molar ratio is augmented. However, it is observed that reaction front propagates relatively slower under low‐gravity conditions. Consistently, the extinction of the combustion front occurs earlier when the reaction is performed under reduced gravity conditions. A theoretical analysis performed by means of appropriate dimensionless numbers is proposed to provide possible explanations of the main experimental evidences reported in the literature on this subject, including those shown in this work. Specifically, this analysis reveals that the relatively higher‐propagation velocity observed under terrestrial conditions may be due to the correspondingly lower‐sample porosity change, which in turn limits the thermal conductivity decreasing in the reaction zone. In addition, free convection phenomena taking place in the molten phase formed at the reaction zone are able to justify the difference in combustion wave velocity experimentally observed under terrestrial conditions between top and bottom ignition configurations. Moreover, it is found that finer microstructure typically observed under low‐gravity is likely a consequence of the reduced coalescence phenomena taking place in such conditions. © 2006 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2006

An experimental investigation into liquid jetting modes and break-up mechanisms conducted in a new reduced gravity facility

Liquid jets, important to many industrial applications including various drop-on-demand processes, are experimentally produced in reduced gravity conditions and analysed to determine the mode the liquid jet is operating in. Three physically different modes of liquid jetting are observed along with their associated break up mechanisms and discussed. Additionally, a) the theoretical transition between jetting and the onset of chaotic dripping is shown to be valid over a range of Re and We numbers in a reduced gravity environment; b) the theoretical transition between a convective and an absolute instability acting on a liquid jet does not appear valid for high Reynolds number jets operating in reduced gravity; c) for the first time, chaotic dripping has been observed and documented in reduced gravity; and, d) a transition is shown to exist in reduced gravity between chaotic dripping and quasi-steady growth. The work has applications to systems operating in both reduced gravity and in select systems operating in normal gravity. The work has been highly successful and has demonstrated the utility of the new Australian test facility in providing adequate test time and reduced gravity conditions to study sensitive phenomena under reduced gravity conditions.

Flow Rate Limitation in Open Capillary Channel Flows

This paper reports the experimental and theoretical investigations of forced liquid flows through open capillary channels under reduced gravity conditions. An open capillary channel is a structure that establishes a liquid flow path at low Bond numbers, when the capillary pressure caused by the surface tension force dominates in comparison to the hydrostatic pressure induced by gravitational or residual accelerations. In case of steady flow through the channel, the capillary pressure of the free surface balances the pressure difference between the liquid and the surrounding constant-pressure gas phase. Because of convective and viscous momentum transport, the pressure along the flow path decreases and causes the free surface to bend inward. The maximum flow rate is achieved when the free surface collapses and gas ingestion occurs at the outlet. This critical flow rate depends on the geometry of the channel and the properties of the liquid. In this paper we present a comparison of the theoretical and experimental critical flow rates and surface profiles for convective dominated flows. For the prediction of the critical flow rate a one-dimensional theoretical model taking into account the entrance pressure loss and the frictional pressure loss in the channel is developed.

IDR/UPM facilities for liquid bridge experimentation on Earth under microgravity conditions

Besides space laboratories for in-orbit experimentation, Earth based facilities for laboratory experimentation are of paramount importance for the enhancement on liquid bridge knowledge. In spite of the constraints imposed by simulated microgravity (which force to work either with very small size liquid bridges or by using the Plateau tank technique, amongst other techniques), the availability and accessibility of Earth facilities can circumvent in many cases the drawbacks associated with simulated microgravity conditions. To support theoretical and in orbit experimental studies on liquid bridges under reduced gravity conditions, several ground facilities were developed at IDR. In the following these ground facilities are briefly described, and main results obtained by using them are cited.

Surface tension measurements of Al-Ni based alloys from ground-based and parabolic flight experiments: Results from the thermolab project

Surface tension measurements of different alloys of the Al-Ni system, performed both under reduced gravity conditions in parabolic flights and on ground by conventional techniques, are presented. The alloys compositions were selected on the basis of the intrinsic compound forming tendency with the aim to allow a sensitive test of model predictions.

An Experimental Study of Smoke Movement Under Reduced Gravity Conditions in a Simple Enclosure

With the recent construction of the International Space Station the movement of smoke in an enclosed environment, with limited gravity, has increased relevance. The previous work related to reduced gravity fire science is concentrated on flame shape and size, material combustion, smoke particle production, and smoke detection. This project uses a drop tower facility to examine a simple case of smoke distribution in an enclosure, determining the variation in smoke movement for Earth gravity and the reduced gravity conditions, and proves the suitability of such a test case for further investigations.

One-Dimensional Drift-Flux Model at Reduced Gravity Conditions

The drift-flux model is of practical importance for two-phase flow analyses at reduced gravity conditions. In view of this, the drift-flux model, which takes the gravity effect into account, is studied in detail. The constitutive equation of the distribution parameter for bubbly flow, which takes the gravity effect into account, has been proposed, and the constitutive equations for slug, churn, and annular flows, which can be applicable to reduced gravity conditions, are recommended based on existing experimental and analytical studies. The previously derived constitutive equations of the drift velocity in various two-phase flow regimes, which takes the frictional pressure loss into account, are adopted in this study. A comparison of the model with various experimental data over various flow regimes and a wide range of flow parameters taken at microgravity conditions shows a satisfactory agreement. The drift-flux model has been applied to reduced gravity conditions such as 1.62 and 3.71 m/s 2 , which correspond to the lunar and Martian surface gravities, respectively, and the effect of the gravity on the void fraction in two-phase flow systems has been discussed.

Fluidization Behavior of Fine Powders in Reduced Gravity Conditions

Geldart’s traditional powder classification of the fluidization process in Earth’s gravitational acceleration is very well known. In this paper, the fluidization behaviors of spherical glass powders and aluminum-oxide powders with different mean particle sizes were studied at four gravitational-acceleration conditions: 1.8 g, 1.0 g, 0.38 g (Martian gravity), and 0.16 g (lunar gravity). The transition region between Geldart’s group A and group C powders was determined at each gravitational acceleration. The observed results were compared to Qian et al.’s semitheoretical group A/C transition equation with good agreement at 1.8 g and 1.0 g and a divergence at 0.38 g and 0.16 g, and the observed results indicated a stronger dependence upon gravity. Nomenclature A = Hamaker constant d p = particle diameter FH = cohesion force g = local gravitational acceleration l = diameter of the asperities of a powder particle δ = particle spacing e = bed void volume ρ p = particle density ρ f = fluid density

Effects of Gap Geometry and Gravity on Boiling Around a Constrained Bubble in 2-Propanol/Water Mixtures

In this study, boiling experiments were conducted with 2-propanol/water mixtures in confined gap geometry under various levels of gravity. The temperature field created within the parallel plate gap resulted in evaporation over the portion of the vapor-liquid interface of the bubble near the heated surface, and condensation near the cold surface. Full boiling curves were obtained and two boiling regimes—nucleate boiling and pseudofilm boiling—and the transition condition, the critical heat flux (CHF), were identified. The observations indicated that the presence of the gap geometry pushed the nucleate boiling regime to a lower superheated temperature range, resulting in correspondingly lower heat flux. With further increases of wall superheat, the vapor generated by the boiling process was trapped in the gap to blanket the heated surface. This caused premature occurrence of CHF conditions and deterioration of heat transfer in the pseudo-film boiling regime. The influence of the confined space was particularly significant when greater Marangoni forces were present under reduced gravity conditions. The CHF value of x (molar fraction)=0.025, which corresponded to weaker Marangoni forces, was found to be greater than that of x=0.015 with a 6.4mm gap.

Solidification of Co-Cu Alloys in the Metastable Miscibility Gap under Low Gravity Conditions

Liquid Cu-Co shows a metastable miscibility gap where the homogeneous melt separates into the Co-rich L1-liquid and the Cu-rich L2-liquid. The required undercooling of the melt of > 120 K can be achieved by containerless methods as electromagnetic levitation, laser melting or drop tube processing. Due to the large undercooling, rapid solidification of the melt is favoured and preserves microstructure features of the metastable (liquid) phases. In Co-84.0 at% Cu alloy the L1- phase nucleates in the Cu-rich majority phase L2 as a dispersion of spherical droplets. Convective flow in the liquid influences largely the time evolution and the nature of the droplet dispersion and makes a theoretical description of the droplet growth extremely difficult. In the present work droplet dispersions are compared which formed under processing methods with different levels of convection: (i) (Terrestrial) electromagnetic levitation (EML), (ii) processing in the TEMPUS facility under parabolic flight conditions and (iii) processing in an 8 m drop tube. The distributions of droplet radii of the L1-phase has been measured in the solidified samples. EML processing leads to significant convection in the melt which causes coagulation of droplets. Reduced gravity conditions in the TEMPUS facility during parabolic flight or in a drop tube can decrease convection, but effects of the convective flow on the dispersion of droplets are still present. The need for experiments under micro-gravity conditions is evident from the results.

Mir space station bacteria responses to modeled reduced gravity under starvation conditions

Isolates from the Mir space station identified as Pseudomonas sp. and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia were subjected to clinorotation to model reduced gravity conditions in water in slow turning lateral vessels (STLVs). To examine cells in varying physiological states, bacteria were enumerated based on the Live/Dead BacLight kit, DAPI (4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole) staining, fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), and colony forming units (CFU). Both Pseudomonas sp. and S. maltophilia showed a slight increase in abundance over time but only cells of Pseudomonas sp. were affected by modeled reduced gravity. For Pseudomonas sp. numbers of DAPI stained cells were significantly higher under modeled reduced gravity compared to normal gravity. In addition, the abundance of cells attached to stainless steel disks, on one sampling date, was greater for the Pseudomonas isolate under modeled reduced gravity than normal gravity. The isolates examined did not appear to appreciably enter into a viable, but not culturable state during the experiments. In general, differences between treatments were not great, demonstrating that responses to reduced gravity are less apparent under starvation conditions, compared to earlier studies which used more rich nutrient sources.