Nonpoint Source Pollution Reduction Research Articles

Spatial optimization of watershed best management practices based on slope position units

Spatial optimization of best management practices (BMPs) is an effective way to select and allocate BMPs for watershed management such as soil and water conservation and nonpoint source pollution reduction. The commonly used spatial units for BMP configuration (or BMP configuration units) include subbasins, hydrologic response units (HRUs), farms, and fields. Normally, these spatial units are not homogeneous functional units from the perspective of physical geography at the hillslope scale (in terms of geomorphic and hydrologic conditions of the hillslope, for example), and thus cannot effectively represent the spatial relationships between BMPs and spatial locations with respect to hillslope processes from upstream to downstream. This makes it difficult to efficiently and rationally construct spatial optimizations for watershed BMPs. This paper proposes a spatial BMP optimization approach based on slope position units, which are homogeneous spatial units with physical geographic features. In the proposed approach, slope position units are used as BMP configuration units by which the relationships between BMPs and slope positions along a hillslope can be explicitly considered during BMP scenario initialization and optimization via genetic algorithm (i.e., NSGA-II). A distributed and physically based watershed model was used to evaluate the environmental effectiveness (i.e., the reduction rate of soil erosion), and a simple estimation method was developed to calculate the net cost of BMP scenarios. A case study was conducted in a small hilly watershed in the typical red-soil region of the Fujian Province in southeastern China, which suffers severely from soil erosion. A simple system of three types of slope positions (i.e., ridge, backslope, and valley) was used to delineate BMP configuration units. Four BMPs that are used in actual Chinese red-soil regions (closing measures, arbor-bush-herb mixed plantation, low-quality forest improvement, and orchard improvement) were considered in the proposed approach to achieve the multiple optimization objectives, which included maximizing the reduction ratio of soil erosion and minimizing the net cost of the BMP scenario. The proposed approach was compared with the standard random optimization approach, which selects and allocates BMPs randomly on BMP configuration units. The results show that the proposed approach is more effective and efficient for proposing practical and effective BMP scenarios than the random approach.

The Effect of Different Artificial Soil on Urban Non-Point Source Pollution Reduction in the Artificial Rapid Infiltration System

The non-point source pollution posed great risks to the urban water environment which has aroused great concerns. Artificial rapid infiltration systems have been widely used in sewage treatment, which have great environmental and economic values. This study investigated the potential of utilizing artificial rapid infiltration systems on the reduction of urban non-point source pollution. The obtained results showed that the components and composition of artificial soils were vital to the operational performance. The mixture of natural soil, coarse sand and zeolite was ideal for the construction of artificial soils. The permeability coefficient of soils could be improved to 0.166 cm/min at the optimized ratio of 1:1:0.05 (natural soil, coarse sand and zeolite). Also, high removal efficiency for the typical pollutants in rain runoffs (i.e. COD, NH4+-N, TN and TP) could be simultaneous obtained which was above 74% in the artificial rapid infiltration systems. The results demonstrated the effectiveness on the reduction of urban non-point pollution by optimized artificial rapid infiltration system.

Evaluation of Filtration and Backwash Efficiency of Non-point Source Pollution Reduction Facility

Evaluation of Filtration and Backwash Efficiency of Non-point Source Pollution Reduction Facility

Analysis of Non-Point Source Pollution Reduction using Water Sensitive Urban Design in Gimhae, South Korea

This study was performed to analyze the effects of a water circulation green area plan on non-point source pollution in Gimhae South Korea. A quantitative analysis of Arc-GIS data was conducted by applying a watershed model based on Fortran to investigate the changes to direct runoff and pollution load. Results showed that prior to the implementation of the water circulation green area plan in Gimhae, direct runoff was 444.05 m3/year, total biological oxygen demand (BOD) pollution load was 21,696 kg/year, and total phosphorus (TP) pollution load was 1,743 kg/year. Implementation of the development plan was found to reduce direct runoff by 2.27%, BOD pollution load by 1.16% and TP pollution load by 0.19% annually. The reduction in direct runoff and non-point source pollution were attributed to improvements in the design of impermeable layers within the city.

Effect of System of Rice Intensification on Water Productivity and NPS Pollution Discharge

AbstractPaddy fields comprise the single largest land use in Korea, occupying nearly 60% of arable land, consuming about 56% of the nation's water supply, and discharging a significant amount of agricultural non‐point source (NPS) pollution to public waters. Rural water resources conservation, the improvement of irrigation water productivity (IWP) and the reduction of NPS pollution from paddy fields are important issues in Korea. To quantify the issue, a field‐size rice‐plot study was conducted for 3 years comparing the treatment of a system of rice intensification (SRI) irrigation management and a conventional practice (CT). The SRI reduced the irrigation requirement at field level by 50% compared to the CT. The IWP of the SRI improved by an average of 94% over that of the CT. The average reductions of the NPS pollutants by SRI was 44.4% (BOD), 38.6% (SS), 35.3% (CODMn), 28.3% (CODCr), 23.8% (TN) and 36.3% (TN). The SRI treatment was concluded to have contributed to healthy rice plant growth, improvement of IWP and reduction of agricultural NPS pollution from paddy fields, which could significantly conserve rural water resources and improve water quality in Korea. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Application of Surface Cover Materials for Reduction of NPS Pollution on Field‐Scale Experimental Plots

AbstractA 2‐year experimental plot study was conducted in Korea to measure the effect of different surface treatments on runoff and agricultural non‐point source (NPS) pollution. The treatments were straw mat conjunctive with polyacrylamide and gypsum (SPG), straw mat (SM) and plastic sheet (PM) mulches. Four plots on a sandy loam, mildly sloped (2–8.4%) soybean field were monitored with respect to runoff and water quality. Average annual rainfall was 1270 mm. Runoff reduction by the SPG and SM treatments ranged from 22.0 to 90.9% and from 50.0 to 68.1%, respectively, compared with runoff from the control. The SM treatment produced less runoff than did the PM treatment. Event mean concentrations did not show any consistent differences between the treatments except for suspended solids (SS), which were always lower than that from the control. The reduction of NPS pollution load by the SPG and SM treatments ranged between 27.6 and 95.0%, and between 38.7 and 96.7%, respectively. The SS reduction by the treatments ranged between 50.0 and 92.2%. The SPG and SM treatments were effective in the control of soil erosion, turbid runoff and other NPS pollution discharge. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Reduction of Non-Point Source Pollution from Paddy Fields through Controlled Drainage in an Aquatic Vegetable Wetland-Ecological Ditch System

Nitrogen and phosphorus losses through runoff from paddy fields are the main sources of non-point pollution in South China. Wetlands with non-food aquatic plants and ditches are used separately in many countries to reduce agricultural non-point pollution. In a field experiment conducted in the Taihu Lake Region of South China, an aquatic vegetable wetland–ecological ditch system (AWDS) with controlled drainage was constructed to purify the drainage from paddy fields. Concentrations of TN, TP, NH4+-N and NO3−-N in the AWDS decreased exponentially during the purification period. After 12 days of abatement, TN and TP concentrations in the outflow of the AWDS significantly decreased by 76.7 and 34.1% respectively compared to those in the inflow. In addition to the decrease in pollution concentration, the controlled drainage contributed to lower drainage from the AWDS. TN and TP loads were reduced by 90.9 and 77.8% respectively. After a growth period, nitrogen and phosphorus uptake of aquatic vegetables in the AWDS was 274 and 24.0 kg ha−1. After harvest, nitrogen and phosphorus contents in the soil increased in the AWDS compared with the contents before planting. The AWDS combined with controlled drainage practices seems to have the desirable functions to reduce non-point pollution. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Evaluation of Land Use, Land Management and Soil Conservation Strategies to Reduce Non-Point Source Pollution Loads in the Three Gorges Region, China.

The construction of the Three Gorges Dam in China and the subsequent impoundment of the Yangtze River have induced a major land use change in the Three Gorges Reservoir Region, which fosters increased inputs of sediment and nutrients from diffuse sources into the water bodies. Several government programs have been implemented to mitigate high sediment and nutrient loads to the reservoir. However, institutional weaknesses and a focus on economic development have so far widely counteracted the effectiveness of these programs. In this study, the eco-hydrological model soil and water assessment tool is used to assess the effects of changes in fertilizer amounts and the conditions of bench terraces in the Xiangxi catchment in the Three Gorges Reservoir Region on diffuse matter releases. With this, the study aims at identifying efficient management measures, which should have priority. The results show that a reduction of fertilizer amounts cannot reduce phosphorus loads considerably without inhibiting crop productivity. The condition of terraces in the catchment has a strong impact on soil erosion and phosphorus releases from agricultural areas. Hence, if economically feasible, programmes focusing on the construction and maintenance of terraces in the region should be implemented. Additionally, intercropping on corn fields as well as more efficient fertilization schemes for agricultural land were identified as potential instruments to reduce diffuse matter loads further. While the study was carried out in the Three Gorges Region, its findings may also beneficial for the reduction of water pollution in other mountainous areas with strong agricultural use.

Non-point source pollution simulation under land use change scenarios in Hun-Taizi River watershed.

Non-point source (NPS) pollution has become a major source of water pollution in recent years. The research of NPS pollution mechanism and control has an important scientific and practical meaning. To study the effect of land use change on NPS pollution load, near future land use of Hun-Taizi River watershed was simulated under three scenarios based on CLUE-S model, including urban planning, historical trend and ecological protection scenarios. NPS pollution was simulated based on SWAT model. The simulated results of SWAT were compared with measured data. The response of NPS pollution to land use change and landscape pattern was studied with the combination of the two models in three land use scenarios. The results showed that the NPS pollution simu-lation with SWAT had high accuracy, which showed the suitability of SWAT model in the study area. The NPS pollution load increased under urban planning and historical trend scenarios but decreased under ecological protection scenario. The difference in three scenarios indicated that land use and landscape pattern impacted NPS to a certain extent, which showed that scientific ecological construction could effectively reduce NPS pollution load. This study provided a new study case for NPS pollution research at watershed scale, a scientific basis for implementation of non-point source pollution control and best management practices, and a reference for related policy making.

Vegetative Filter Strip (Vfs) Applications for Runoff and Pollution Management in the Saemangeum Area of Korea

AbstractThis study was conducted to develop a vegetative filter strip (VFS) technique to manage agricultural non‐point source (NPS) pollution in the region in Korea. The experimental plots were constructed with two different sizes and slopes in the uplands within the Saemangeum Basin. The soil type of the study area was classified as loam with NRCS hydrologic soil type B, and showed typical upland soil characteristics. The rainfall–runoff relationships and NPS pollution reduction effects of the VFS were assessed, and the total cost of VFS application was estimated. It was noted that runoff reduction effects ranged from 14.1 to 69.3%, and NPS pollution reduction effects were 9.8–94.2% in suspended solid (SS), 24.0–73.3% in total nitrogen (T‐N) and 47.6–80.9% in total phosphorus (T–P) from the VFS plots. The variations of VFS effects were caused by various factors including size and slope of the source area, cover ratio and width of VFS, as well as rainfall characteristics. The total VFS application cost was estimated to be approximately US$3390 ha−1 yr.−1, considering the costs for construction and maintenance of the VFS system and the loss of benefit caused by giving up crop cultivation in the area needed for VFS construction. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Current patterns and future perspectives of best management practices research: A bibliometric analysis

Best management practices (BMPs), as pollution control systems to improve the water environment, were proposed by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act in 1972 (Ice et al. 2010). Best management practices were initially designed for the purpose of controlling soil erosion (Logan 1993). As nonpoint source (NPS) pollution has caused major water quality degradation and threatened the safety of water resources worldwide, BMPs have been recommended as an effective tool used widely to reduce NPS pollution (D'Arcy and Frost 2001; Giri et al. 2012; Ice 2004). Countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, first initiated BMPs and have had successful experience in agricultural NPS pollution control since the 1970s (Krivak 1978; Mueller et al. 1981). Over the span of a few decades, the application of BMPs has accelerated, and new practices (e.g., stormwater management, watershed management, low impact development, and critical source areas [CSAs]) have been continuously put forward (Martin-Mikle et al. 2015; Niraula et al. 2013; Sage et al. 2015; Zhang et al. 2015). In recent years, several in-depth studies of BMPs have been carried out, such as the Conservation Effect Assessment Project in the United States (Simon and Klimetz 2008), the Watershed Evaluation of Beneficial Management…

What Works for Agricultural Nonpoint Source Pollution Reduction? Evidence from the Corn Belt in the United States

This paper joins the non-point source pollution regulation discussion and examines whether economic incentives provided by crop insurance subsidies alter fertilizer application decisions in the direction with environmental benefits. The model predicts that farmers regularly apply more fertilizer than optimal in a given year to take advantage of yield gains in the few years with favorable weather conditions, and that the long-term optimal fertilizer application level reduces with crop insurance, thus creating environmental externalities. Intuitively, farmers use “insurance application” of fertilizer at their own full expenses to achieve exceptional good yields and profits to make up for losses in bad years to sustain long-term profitability. With insurance covering the loss in very bad years, such incentive is reduced, resulting in a reduced the long-term optimal fertilizer level. Empirically, this study finds that a reduction in fertilizer use was achieved in the search of reducing systemic production risk in agriculture via crop insurance. An Instrumental variable (IV) approach was used taking advantage of the exogenous shocks on crop insurance enrollment induced by Federal Crop Insurance Reform Act (FCIRA) of 1994 and the differential response to the policy due to past extreme heat shocks. The study finds that counties in the Corn Belt where cropland is dominated by corn and soybean production showed an 18.5% decrease in commercial nitrogen (N) fertilizer use. No significant change in phosphorus (P) fertilizer application was found. The difference in behavior responses between N and P is expected and can be explained by the natural process of N and P in the soil and history of nutrients management in the Corn Belt. These findings suggest that public programs that alters economic incentives can have significant knock-on effects on agricultural non-point source pollution. Further, effective design of economic incentive programs in regulating agricultural NPS pollution should be rooted in understanding natural process of the pollutants in the ecosystem. More broadly, policy targeting the same population, regardless of the designed purpose of the programs, should be considered when predicting policy outcomes.

Development of Agricultural Non‐Point Source Pollution Reduction Measures in Korea

AbstractThe dramatic increase of non‐point source (NPS) pollutant loads in total pollutant loads necessitates urgent countermeasures against NPS pollution reduction. Point source treatment technology and measures for systematic agricultural NPS pollution reduction are needed, because agricultural NPS pollutants have been shown to have a stronger effect than other sources in the Saemangeum River Basin. Therefore, the present study, initiated in 2010 (a 7‐year project), focuses on the development of agricultural NPS pollution reduction measures in the Saemangeum River Basin.Farmers and residents still appear to have a very low awareness of agricultural NPS pollution in South Korea. Genuinely critical factors in reducing agricultural NPS pollution are efforts to develop best management practices (BMPs) that reduce NPS pollution and dissemination of the BMPs among residents, including farmers, so that the BMPs can be implemented. The tested BMPs showed a reduction effect of agricultural NPS pollution from paddy and upland areas. However, long‐term research results are needed to evaluate this effect, because no economic benefits through the BMPs application were observed. Based on the results of the present study, BMP manuals and environmental education teaching materials have been developed for the farmers. In addition, systematization of support for dissemination of BMP and participation of farmers has been promoted. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Identifying organic matter sources using isotopic ratios in a watershed impacted by intensive agricultural activities in Northeast China

Knowledge about the origin and variation of OM (organic matter) pools in a receiving river might provide a basis for addressing non-point sources of pollution resulting from intensive agricultural activity. In this study, an isotopic approach (δ13C, δ15N and C/N ratios) was used to identify potential OM sources and C and N cycle processes occurring in the Abujiao River watershed located in the Sanjiang Plain. A Bayesian model (stable isotope analysis in R, SIAR) was utilized to apportion the contributions of potential sources. In this watershed, isotopic ratios of δ13C ranged from −30.62‰ to −23.71‰ and from −28.22‰ to −23.98‰ in particulate organic matter (POM) and sedimentary organic matter (SOM), respectively. Slightly lower δ15N values (3.12±4.12‰ in POM; 3.7±2.42% in SOM) and C/N ratios (6.62±5.28 in POM; 10.73±6.58 in SOM) were found in SOM pools. Considerable spatio-temporal variability of the organic carbon and nitrogen isotopic ratios was present in the POM pool, which was controlled by storms and land use. The unusually low δ15N-POM values accompanied by high chlorophyll-a concentrations suggested that an isotopic fractionation effect caused by phytoplankton existed in the POM pool. However, isotopic characteristics indicated that the isotopic fractionation was absent in the SOM pool. SIAR modeling result showed that source contributions differed significantly among different sampling periods. During storms, ”soil OM” was the major source (accounting for 45.50%) in the POM pools. During other periods, effluent detritus and phytoplankton sources were predominant in the downstream region. Compared with POM, almost half of SOM came from terrestrial sources, and the effluent detritus and “soil OM” sources predominated in the SOM pool. This study suggested that assessment of behaviors and sources of OM could lead to the implementation of effective non-point source pollution reduction strategies and management practices for protecting water quality.

Social Indicator Variations Across Watersheds: Implications for Developing Outreach and Technical Assistance Programs

ABSTRACTCurrent policy regarding nonpoint source pollution reduction in the United States involves encouraging voluntary adoption of Best Management Practices. Supporting the voluntary adoption of any practice requires the right combination of education, outreach, assistance, and incentives. Developing this combination necessitates an understanding of the target audience. The Social Indicators Planning and Evaluation System (SIPES) was developed to capture social information about target audiences through the use of customized but consistent survey questions. Close examination and comparison of data collected using SIPES reinforce that social characteristics differ between watersheds and that project managers in one area should not rely on descriptions from another when planning their outreach, education, and technical assistance programs. Policymakers should consider funding community-based watershed organizations to collect social data to improve targeting of water quality restoration efforts.

Preplant Cultivation Techniques and Planting Date Effects on White Clover Establishment into an Existing Cool-season Turfgrass Sward

Managed turfgrass species require frequent inputs to maintain an acceptable level of density and appearance. Among these inputs, the N supply is often the most limiting input in terms of growth and development of the turfgrass stand. However, N fertilization has been linked to nonpoint source (NPS) pollution of groundwater and natural water bodies. White clover (WC), which would provide N in mixed turfgrass swards, could help reduce NPS pollution from N fertilization of turf. To test the feasibility of introducing WC into existing turf, a field study was designed to determine the best method of incorporating WC in mature stands of two cool-season grasses. Two varieties of WC, ‘Dutch White’ (DW), and ‘Microclover’ (MC), were sown (24.4 kg·ha−1) into existing stands of kentucky bluegrass (KBG) (Poa pratensis L.) and tall fescue (TF) (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.). Establishment techniques tested included core aeration (CA), scalping (SC), and vertical mowing (VM) compared with direct sowing into the turfgrass stand. Establishment treatments were performed in April, July, and October of 2012–13 to examine for any seasonal timing effect on establishment. No significant difference in plant numbers (individual clover plants per square meter) was found between WC varieties among planting dates and techniques. The SC treatment resulted in the highest individual clover plant numbers. However, turfgrass recovery was significantly slower from the SC treatment than all other treatments. The summer planting date yielded the highest WC plant numbers. Recovery of the turfgrass from all preplanting treatments was also highest at the spring and summer planting dates.

Effect of Straw Mulch on Runoff and NPS Pollution Reduction from Experimental Plots under a Climate Change Scenario in Korea

AbstractThis study attempted to quantify the effects of rice straw mulches on runoff and nonpoint source (NPS) pollution under a future climate change scenario. For this, regression equations between the observed rainfall and runoff curve number (CN) were developed to estimate NPS pollution from radish fields. Rainfall data from the special report on emissions scenarios (SRES) A1B were applied to the regression equations in order to predict future runoff and NPS pollution by surface covers. The results show that future rainfall was estimated to increase by 0.8% in the 2020s, 14.4% in the 2050s, and 15.1% in the 2080s. Under the projected rainfall conditions, the loose straw and the straw mat mulches were estimated to reduce runoff by 65.7 to 66.8% and 95.8 to 96.9%, respectively, while the selected pollutants were reduced by 44.1 to 98.8% and 58.9 to 94.9%, respectively. Both types of straw mulch were effective in controlling both runoff and NPS pollution, and thus offer a very promising means to cope wit...

돈분퇴비가 시용된 논의 양분유출 저감을 위한 저류지 효과

Pig slurry has been considered as environmental waste to be treated in an appropriate manner. Moreover, water-born pollution loads by agricultural non-point source(NPS) pollution are expected to become intensified due to ongoing precipitation change. This study was conducted to develop a best management practice to reduce NPS pollution load by agricultural activity with pig manure compost. An eco-friendly way, small drainage pond, was suggested in this study to avoid direct drainage of agricultural runoffs and eventually reduce the amount of pollutants discharged into the surrounding aqua-environment. A small pond(12 m 2 ) was constructed at the corner of a rice paddy field(1,715 m 2 ) located in Suwon, Korea. Water was allowed to drain only via a small drainage pond. Sampling was repeatedly made at two locations, one from an entrance and the other from an exit of a pond, during the rice cultivation period(May to October, 2013). Generally, sampling was made only when runoff water drained through a pond, such as during and/or after rain(irrigation). The water quality analysis showed that all quality parameters(SS, CODMn, T-N, and T-P) were improved as water passed through the pond. The amount of runoff water was reduced by 67.8%. Suspended solids and CODMn concentrations were reduced by 79.8% and 71.9%, respectively. In case of T-N and T-P amounts, the reduction rates were 73.6% and 74.9%, respectively. Our data implies that agricultural NPS pollution from rice paddy fields with pig manure-based fertilizer can be effectively managed when an appropriate drainage water management practice is imposed.

Trade-off between water pollution prevention, agriculture profit, and farmer practice--an optimization methodology for discussion on land-use adjustment in China.

Agricultural decision-making to control nonpoint source (NPS) water pollution may not be efficiently implemented, if there is no appropriate cost-benefit analysis on agricultural management practices. This paper presents an interval-fuzzy linear programming (IFLP) model to deal with the trade-off between agricultural revenue, NPS pollution control, and alternative practices through land adjustment for Wuchuan catchment, a typical agricultural area in Jiulong River watershed, Fujian Province of China. From the results, the lower combination of practice 1, practice 2, practice 3, and practice 7 with the land area of 12.6, 5.2, 145.2, and 85.3 hm(2), respectively, could reduce NPS pollution load by 10%. The combination yields an income of 98,580 Chinese Yuan/a. If the pollution reduction is 15%, the higher combination need practice 1, practice 2, practice 3, practice 5, and practice 7 with the land area of 54.4, 23.6, 18.0, 6.3, and 85.3 hm(2), respectively. The income of this combination is 915,170 Chinese Yuan/a. The sensitivity analysis of IFLP indicates that the cost-effective practices are ranked as follows: practice 7 > practice 2 > practice 1 > practice 5 > practice 3 > practice 6 > practice 4. In addition, the uncertainties in the agriculture NPS pollution control system could be effectively quantified by the IFLP model. Furthermore, to accomplish a reasonable and applicable project of land-use adjustment, decision-makers could also integrate above solutions with their own experience and other information.

Non-point source pollution dynamics under long-term agricultural development and relationship with landscape dynamics

Long-term agricultural development has an influence on the regional landscape patterns and non-point source (NPS) pollution. The implementation of sustainable landscapes management is a key component in agricultural development together with the reduction of agricultural NPS pollution. In this paper, the interactions of land cover, landscape pattern and NPS pollution were analyzed synchronously. The land cover variation of the agricultural watershed from 1976 to 2006 in Northeast China was analyzed from the Landsat series images, and the landscape pattern was also analyzed with FRAGSTATS. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to identify the NPS pollution response to long-term land cover dynamics. The temporal variation trends of the landscape fragmentation, shape and diversity index demonstrated the response of natural land covers to agricultural development. The six landscape metrics at landscape and watershed scale indicated that the impact of agricultural expansion on regional natural system become slightly in the recent time period. By applying redundancy analyses (RDA), the interactions of the land cover and landscape pattern dynamics with the pollution loading of NPS nutrients at four temporal scales were analyzed. The RDA results also demonstrated the close interactions among them and the proper landscape pattern design can facilitate the prevention of NPS pollution. The responses of seven NPS nutrient indices to the temporal variation of the landscape pattern were also identified, and the influence of agricultural land expansion on NPS nutrient loading was described. The applied method can analyze the interactions of three aspects simultaneously and provide potential solution to agricultural NPS pollution reduction. These results confirm the important role of sustainable landscape management and spatial arrangement during agricultural development and conservation planning.