Reducing Meat Consumption Research Articles

Animals Like Us: Leveraging the Negativity Bias in Anthropomorphism to Reduce Beef Consumption.

Our current work contributes to the literature of meat consumption reduction. Capitalizing on the inherent humanizing characteristic of anthropomorphism coupled with leveraging negativity bias, we created a novel approach to reduce meat-eating intention. Using on-pack product stickers, we compare an anthropomorphic message stressing the capacity to experience pain with two other anthropomorphic messages that have been used before in the literature (intelligence and pro-social behavior of animals). We find that an on-pack pain anthropomorphic sticker reduces purchase intentions of the meat product and intention to consume meat in general and is more effective than stickers displaying pro-social or intelligence messages. We also show that the pain message’s negative impact on purchase intention is serially mediated by anticipatory guilt and attitude towards meat. In addition, we show that the differential effectiveness of the anthropomorphic messages can be explained by the negativity bias. That is, when the pro-social and intelligence messages were formulated in a negative way (as is pain), all three messages were equally effective at reducing intention to purchase meat and increase intention to reduce meat consumption.

The Impact of Dietary Changes on Agriculture, Trade, Environment and Health: A Literature Review

Animal-source foods are a major component of global diets and are increasingly criticised because of their adverse impacts on environment, climate and health. A shift in diets towards plant-based foods is a discussed option to overcome these problems. Much of the scientific emphasis so far has been on estimating the potential of such a dietary change to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve health outcomes while less attention has been attracted on studies analysing the impacts on agricultural markets. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview and, therefore, summarizes existing studies on the effects of a reduced consumption of animal-source foods on agricultural markets, greenhouse gas emissions, food security and health. In addition, available studies on the so‑called rebound effect are presented. The identified studies suggest that a reduction in the consumption of meat in the EU or OECD would lead to a 1‑10% decrease in meat world market prices, depending on the magnitude and particularities of the assumed dietary changes. This would translate to a 3‑10% reduction in production. The lower domestic demand for meat could also negatively affect welfare outcomes and GDP. However, it has to be mentioned that these studies do not take into account the consequences of improved environmental and health conditions. In fact, our review indicates that reductions in greenhouse gas emissions could generally be proportional to the magnitude of plant-based diets. The maximum reduction potentials of 60-70% could be found for global vegetarian or vegan diets. However, some studies indicate that a shift in food expenditure towards other resource-intensive goods could lead to a rebound effect. Further, this overview suggests that environmental and public health objectives might be in alignment as all identified studies indicate that a reduction in meat consumption in high‑income countries could be associated with lower rates of mortality and non-communicable diseases. This overview reveals the complex relationships between food demand, agricultural supply, international trade, environment, health and food security.

Pulses Twice a Week in Replacement of Meat Modestly Increases Diet Sustainability.

The French food-based dietary guidelines recommend eating pulses at least twice a week and to reduce meat consumption. This study assessed the impact on the sustainability characteristics (nutrition, cost, environment) of individual diets of meeting the pulse guideline. Dietary data of 2028 adults from the Esteban survey were completed with the nutritional content (considering bioavailability on iron, zinc and protein), price and environmental impacts of foods. When the pulse guideline (i.e., 57 g/day) was not met, two substitution scenarios raised the quantity of pulses to the recommended level, in replacement of an equivalent portion of (i) starches or (ii) meat. Only 9.6% of the participants reached the pulse guideline. Diet sustainability characteristics improved with the meat scenario (nutritional indicators improved; diet cost, greenhouse gas emissions and acidification decreased), while several indicators deteriorated with the starches scenario. Zinc available for absorption slightly decreased in both scenarios while iron available for absorption decreased in the meat scenario only. Increasing pulse consumption to two portions/week could modestly improve the sustainability of diets when pulses replace meat but not starches. Cultural acceptability of that substitution still needs to be proven, and iron and zinc status of individuals at risk of deficiency should be monitored.

Meet your meat: The effect of imagined intergroup contact on wanting and liking of meat

Increased global meat consumption has negative impacts on animal welfare, the environment, as well as health. The current study is the first to investigate whether imagined intergroup contact with a farmed animal changes wanting and liking of beef and reduces willingness to consume meat. Collegians [N = 100, 67% female] imagined having a positive experience with either a calf (n = 36), kitten (n = 33), or child (n = 31). Following the imagined interaction, they completed the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire to measure implicit and explicit wanting and explicit liking of beef and other types of meat relative to other food categories. Participants also indicated their willingness to reduce meat consumption. Results revealed that there were no significant differences between groups in explicit wanting or liking of beef or meat, nor in willingness to reduce future meat consumption. Nevertheless, compared to the kitten and child conditions, participants who imagined interacting with a calf experienced lower levels of implicit wanting and relative preference for beef and other meat products. Our findings suggest that imagined intergroup contact may be an effective manipulation to reduce meat consumption as a part of a broader intervention program.

Identifying barriers to decreasing meat consumption and increasing acceptance of meat substitutes among Swedish consumers

A key lifestyle change people could make to reduce their environmental impact is to reduce their meat consumption. However, meat is still a staple in many people's diet, and some consumers are reluctant to cut down. Meat substitutes, if accepted as adequate replacements for meat, may offer a suitable alternative without leaving consumers feeling dissatisfied. The aim of the present study was to identify psychological barriers to reducing meat consumption and increasing use of meat substitutes among Swedish consumers. Participants engaged in focus group discussions around purchasing, preparing, and consuming meat and meat substitutes. Four main themes were identified through thematic analysis: uncertainty, scepticism, health, and identity. These are discussed in relation to previous work on the barriers to reducing meat consumption. Strategies to communicate the environmental impact of meat to consumers and effect change through behavioural interventions are considered.

Rationalisation of meat consumption in New Zealand adolescents.

This study aimed to describe meat consumption rationalisation and relationships with meat consumption patterns and food choice motivations in New Zealand adolescents. This was a cross-sectional study of adolescents from high schools across New Zealand. Demographics, dietary habits, and motivations and attitudes towards food were assessed by online questionnaire and anthropometric measurements taken by researchers. The 4Ns questionnaire assessed meat consumption rationalisation with four subscales: 'Nice', 'Normal', 'Necessary' and 'Natural'. Nineteen secondary schools from eight regions in New Zealand, with some purposive sampling of adolescent vegetarians in Otago, New Zealand. Questionnaires were completed by 385 non-vegetarian and vegetarian (self-identified) adolescents. A majority of non-vegetarian adolescents agreed that consuming meat was 'nice' (65 %), but fewer agreed that meat consumption was 'necessary' (51 %). Males agreed more strongly than females with all 4N subscales. High meat consumers were more likely to agree than to disagree that meat consumption was nice, normal, necessary and natural, and vegetarians tended to disagree with all rationalisations. Adolescent non-vegetarians whose food choice was motivated more by convenience, sensory appeal, price and familiarity tended to agree more with all 4N subscales, whereas adolescents motivated by animal welfare and environmental concerns were less likely to agree. To promote a reduction in meat consumption in adolescents, approaches will need to overcome beliefs that meat consumption is nice, normal, necessary and natural.

Dynamic Norms and Food Choice: Reflections on a Failure of Minority Norm Information to Influence Motivation to Reduce Meat Consumption

Recent research in the US shows the potential of providing information about minority norms that are increasing on positively influencing interest and engagement in desired behaviours. Although these are promising findings, there is little published research replicating or testing this effect outside the US. The study reported here is a direct replication of Sparkman and Walton’s (2017) research. We explored the effects of different kinds of normative information, particularly information about increasing (referred to as ‘dynamic’ or ‘trending’) minority norms, on interest in reducing meat consumption, attitudes toward reducing meat consumption, intentions to reduce meat consumption, and expectations to do so. Following pilot work (n = 197), we used a double-blind online study with three conditions: dynamic norm (n = 276), static norm (n = 284), and no norm (n = 286). The sample consisted of British people, with ages ranging from 18 to 79 (Mage = 37.21, SDage = 13.58; 56.38% female). There was no effect of dynamic norm information on any outcomes, including predictions about future meat consumption norms. Exploratory analyses suggest that political position and gender were associated with meat consumption outcomes. The findings are discussed in relation to conditions under which dynamic normative information may be successful in influencing motivation to engage in desired behaviours, and to possible improvements in research design.

Reconciling contrasting guideline recommendations on red and processed meat for health outcomes

Over the last decade, multiple authoritative organizations have recommended limiting the consumption of unprocessed red meat and processed meat [1,2]. Based on five systematic reviews, we have recently published a new set of guidelines that have called the previous recommendations into question, suggesting that, for most people, the health benefits are too small and uncertain to warrant reducing meat consumption [3–10]. Although we share the current environmental concerns related to diet and agricultural practices, as well as animal welfare issues, given our lack of expertise with such topics, as well as the scientific need to focus on optimal evidence synthesis methods addressing meat and its purported health risks, the guideline focused exclusively on health outcomes [3].

Understanding vegetarian customers: the effects of restaurant attributes on customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions

ABSTRACT Considering the significant number of vegetarian customers and the global trend of reducing meat consumption, the primary objective of this study is to examine the effects of six restaurant attributes, namely, food quality, service quality, atmosphere, convenience, price, and vegetarian menu options, on the customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions (i.e., willingness to pay more and revisit intention) of vegetarian customers. The results of structural equation modeling indicated that, among the attributes, only price and vegetarian menu options had significant positive effects on vegetarian customers’ satisfaction, and the relationship between vegetarian menu options and revisit intention was mediated by customer satisfaction. In addition, customer satisfaction significantly increased both customers’ willingness to pay more and their revisit intention. This research expands the knowledge about vegetarian customers and provides useful insight for restaurateurs.

Beyond “Meat Free Monday”: A mixed method study of giving up eating meat

Increasing numbers of people are vegan, vegetarian, or reducing meat consumption. There has also been growth in campaigns such as Meat Free Monday (MFM) that encourage and support reduced meat consumption. We conducted a mixed-method exploration of the behaviour and beliefs associated with reducing or eliminating meat consumption. An online questionnaire was completed by an opportunistic sample of 655 people aged 18–82 who were registered on the MFM website, and were meat eaters at the time of registering. The key focus of quantitative analyses was comparisons between three groups: those who described themselves as “omnivores” who ate all meat at the time of completing the survey, those who ate only some meat, and those who had stopped eating meat since registering for MFM. The qualitative component entailed Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of in-depth interviews with 18 people who had completed the questionnaire. The quantitative data revealed that people who had stopped eating meat since engaging with the MFM campaign had more positive attitudes toward being vegetarian or vegan, had been engaged with MFM for a longer time, and had used more elements of the MFM website. The qualitative data illustrated that individuals understood and appreciated MFM's aim of supporting people to make an initial change and then considering expanding on this. Interviewees highlighted the value and importance of campaign materials that helped them to turn their beliefs and motivation into enduring behaviour change. The observed associations between longer engagement with the campaign and greater behaviour change suggest that MFM and similar campaigns will maximise their impact if they can maintain people's active engagement: that this will necessitate deeper understanding of the forms of support and advice are most wanted and most effective.

VR outreach and meat reduction advocacy: The role of presence, empathic concern and speciesism in predicting meat reduction intentions

The industrial farming and slaughtering of animals may be considered one of the most pressing ethical problems of our time, yet consumers remain empathically disconnected from food animals and continue to eat meat. Therefore, animal advocacy groups have started using virtual reality (VR) outreach to promote consumers' concern for food animals and persuade them to eat less meat. In this study, we examined whether a short 360° documentary depicting the life cycle of factory farmed pigs (from their lives on the farm to their death in the slaughterhouse) experienced in a VR format versus in a regular video format increases participants’ intentions to eat less meat via an increased feeling of presence and empathic concern. Using a single factor experimental design, we randomly allocated participants (n = 84 after data-cleaning) to answer a questionnaire following one of both conditions (VR versus video documentary, each n = 42). Results confirmed our hypothesized serial mediation model; VR (versus video) had a positive influence on presence and additionally on empathic concern, leading to higher intentions of reduced meat consumption among participants. Yet, VR (versus video) also had a direct, negative effect on empathy when controlling for presence, so no total effect of medium format on intentions to reduce meat could be found. This counter-effect of VR on empathic concern could be explained by an increased level of speciesism among participants exposed to the VR (versus video) documentary, a finding that is consistent with prior literature on speciesism, cognitive dissonance and dissociation, and requires further confirmatory investigation. Limitations and implications for theory and practice of the study are considered.

Explaining intention to reduce red and processed meat in the UK and Italy using the theory of planned behaviour, meat-eater identity, and the Transtheoretical model

This study aimed to contribute to the growing literature investigating the psychosocial factors associated with intentions to reduce red and processed meat consumption, given the significant negative impact of meat on public health and in contributing to climate change. A framework combining the Theory of Planned Behaviour with meat-eater identity and the Transtheoretical Model was used to explain intention to reduce red and processed meat consumption across participant samples in the UK and Italy, to identify the factors involved in encouraging behaviour change whilst also considering differences in culinary practices. University students in the UK (n = 320) and Italy (n = 304) completed an online survey including measures from the Theory of Planned Behaviour and the Transtheoretical Model, as well as a measure of meat-eater identity. The results showed differences in the relative impact of subjective norm, perceived behavioural control, and meat-eater identity, on behavioural intention across the different stages of change and across the two countries. On the other hand, attitude remained a stable predictor across the different stages of change and in both countries. The results are discussed in relation to existing literature, with the goal of increasing understanding of how reduced meat consumption might be encouraged across different populations.

Alternative proteins attract investment

Alternative proteins attract investment

Changing Hearts and Plates: The Effect of Animal-Advocacy Pamphlets on Meat Consumption.

Social movements have driven large shifts in public attitudes and values, from anti-slavery to marriage equality. A central component of these movements is moral persuasion. We conduct a randomized-controlled trial of pro-vegan animal-welfare pamphlets at a college campus. We observe the effect on meat consumption using an individual-level panel data set of approximately 200,000 meals. Our baseline regression results, spanning two academic years, indicate that the pamphlet had no statistically significant long-term aggregate effects. However, as we disaggregate by gender and time, we find small statistically significant effects within the semester of the intervention: a 2.4 percentage-point reduction in poultry and fish for men and a 1.6 percentage-point reduction in beef for women. The effects disappear after 2 months. We merge food purchase data with survey responses to examine mechanisms. Those participants who (i) self-identified as vegetarian, (ii) reported thinking more about the treatment of animals or (iii) expressed a willingness to make big lifestyle changes reduced meat consumption during the semester of the intervention. Though we find significant effects on some subsamples in the short term, we can reject all but small treatment effects in the aggregate.

Campus Decarbonization: Students’ Perceptions for Reducing Meat Consumption in a Portuguese University

This study is focused on perceptions regarding meat consumption, targeting university students. This is a timely topic in a context of climate change (CC), sustainability in agri-food systems and in universities. Recently, some universities adopted food-related CC mitigation measures, by removing some types of meat from their canteens. This research intended to find trends, at a Portuguese university, on consumption habits and on willingness to reduce meat. The methodology follows a quantitative and descriptive approach. The universe is the students’ community from the University of Aveiro, with a random sample of 876 valid questionnaires. Although results show that meat is a substantial part of students’ diet, most of them are willing to reduce this product, and mainly for environmental reasons. Undergraduate students have higher level of awareness in this matter, namely from Natural Sciences. Female students are more receptive to diet changes. Further studies and educational actions on Diet-CC should be promoted in all levels of Academy, especially in PhD, Social Sciences and with gender differentiation. Such results may support an effectively participatory discussion to better decide on decarbonization of the Campus through the diet.

Association of meat consumption with NAFLD risk and liver-related biochemical indexes in older Chinese: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundNon-alcohol fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common liver disease and an unhealthy lifestyle can lead to an increased risk of NAFLD. The present study aims to evaluate the association of meat consumption with NAFLD risk and liver-related biochemical indexes in middle-aged and elderly Chinese.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted in individuals who were 45 years or older and underwent a physical examination from April 2015 to August 2017 in Southeast China. To evaluate associations between meat intake and NAFLD risk, inverse probability of treatment weighting and subgroup analyses were performed with logistic regressions. Spearman’s rank correlation was carried out to examine the relationship between meat consumptions and liver-related biochemical indexes.ResultsHigh consumptions of red meat (28.44–49.74 and > 71.00 g/day) (ORadjusted = 1.948; P < 0.001; ORadjusted = 1.714; P = 0.002) was positively associated with NAFLD risk on inverse probability of treatment weighting analysis, adjusting for smoking, tea intake, weekly hours of physical activity and presence of hypertension, dyslipidemia and diabetes. Exposure–response relationship analysis presented that red meat intake was positively associated with NAFLD risk. Significant associations of red meat intakes with serum levels of γ-glutamyl transferase, alanine transaminase, aspartate aminotransferase, total triglyceride and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol were found (rs = 0.176; P < 0.001; rs = 0.128; P < 0.001; rs = 0.060; P = 0.016; rs = 0.085; P = 0.001; rs = − 0.074; P = 0.003).ConclusionsThese findings suggest that the reduction of meat consumption may decrease NAFLD risk and should warrant further investigations.

The effectiveness of COVID-related message framing on public beliefs and behaviors related to plant-based diets

Shifting the public towards plant-based diets is critical for achieving environmental and public health outcomes. Increasingly news articles and organizations have begun using the saliency of the COVID-19 crisis to highlight the link between animal agriculture, pandemic risks, and other widespread public health threats. Yet, little is known about the effectiveness of this messaging strategy for motivating dietary change. We conducted a randomized trial with an online sample to examine the impact of: (1) a message that uses the saliency of the COVID-19 pandemic to highlight the risk of disease transmission from factory farms, and (2) a message that uses the saliency of the COVID-19 pandemic to highlight the threat to worker's health created by factory farms. We examine whether these messages are more effective at changing beliefs about and behavioral intentions towards plant-based eating, as compared to more traditional messages that highlight the environmental, personal health, or animal welfare implications of factory farmed meat consumption. We find that all messages differentially influenced beliefs about the various negative consequences of meat consumption. However, these altered beliefs did not differentially motivate changes in respondents' intentions to reduce meat consumption and choose plant-based alternatives. This was possibly due to the numerous other barriers to behavior change identified in qualitative survey responses, such as cost, taste, and social factors. We did find that messages that highlight the personal health benefits of reduced meat consumption were more effective at increasing public trust in the message deliverer. Our results suggest that highlighting personal health benefits in messaging and addressing the additional identified barriers to behavior change may be critical for building trust and shifting the public towards plant-based diets.

Future teachers facing the problem of climate change: meat consumption, perceived responsibility, and willingness to act

We explore the socio-ecological effects of meat consumption by assessing the impact of a didactical intervention. We focused on meat consumers’ profiles, their willingness to engage in pro-environmental actions and the allocation of responsibility for environmental issues. Using pretest-posttest-control methodology, a group of future primary-school teachers were surveyed before and after the intervention (TG, n = 95), together with a control group (CG, n = 49). The results show that, initially, both groups found it difficult to be critical of their meat consumption and to build clear relationships between it and climate change. After the intervention, the TG built better relationships and more elaborated arguments. Regarding their intentions to change their food consumption and perceived responsibility, the intervention also influenced the TG, with significant differences between the pre and posttests. Besides, we highlight the importance of promoting individual responsibility when addressing socio-ecological problems, since this variable showed significant positive correlations with the willingness to reduce meat consumption.

Reducing meat consumption in meat-loving Denmark: Exploring willingness, behavior, barriers and drivers

Lower meat consumption benefits public health and the environment. This study examined public willingness to reduce meat consumption in Denmark, and the drivers and barriers involved. An online survey (n = 1005), representative of the Danish population, carried out in 2019 measured meat dietary habits and willingness to reduce meat intake using the Stages of Change model, and barriers to, and drivers of, reduction. Approximately 3.5% of those surveyed did not eat meat (vegetarians/vegans), 57% had no intention to reduce their meat intake (with 5% planning to increase it). About 11.5% intended to reduce, and 27.5% had already reduced their meat intake (a slightly higher share than previously observed). Importantly, those stating that they had already reduced also ate significantly fewer meals with meat than those with no intention or an intention only. Drivers of meat reduction included awareness of the climate impact of meat and social networks containing meat reducers and avoiders. Barriers included food neophobia, identity incongruence, habitual behavior and practical difficulties. Strategies should focus on meat reduction, not exclusion, as completely removing meat from the diet was unpopular. As barriers and drivers differed with stage, we call for specialized campaigns. Consumers not intending to reduce meat intake could potentially be persuaded by climate awareness campaigns, and by promotion of small adaptations to familiar meals. Consumers intending to reduce meat intake may be prompted to do so by health awareness campaigns, changes to the choice architecture and increased availability of meatless meals.

What's the beef?: Debating meat, matters of concern and the emergence of online issue publics

A number of recent scientific publications have called for significant reductions in meat consumption in order to mitigate the negative impacts of the food system on the planet. Public debate around this issue is not straightforward, however, with plant-based and alternative-protein narratives contested by an agro-ecological narrative. These competing narratives are being played out in both scientific and public discourses, with social media emerging as an important vehicle. Seeking to understand the nature of the ‘online issue publics’ forming around this issue, the paper draws on an analysis of Twitter data to assess ‘sustainable meat’ narratives as ‘matters of concern’ (Latour, 2004, 2018), rooted in the discrepant views, disputes and disagreements that typically coalesce around such issues. To this end, #sustainablemeat AND #ethicalmeat, and #eatlessmeat hashtags, respectively, were compared, as examples of debating meat. Two key insights emerged. Firstly, there is limited evidence of an encompassing debate on Twitter; #eatlessmeat tweets generated more frequent mentions and greater heterogeneity of content than #sustainablemeat tweets. Secondly, the prominence of commercially invested users using Twitter for marketing purposes; #sustainablemeat tweets were orientated toward promoting a business or the production of meat, whereas #eatlessmeat tweets showed a greater association with planetary issues and an evolution of the ‘vegan’ narrative. Individuals and organisations who are already invested in an issue use specialist hashtags. Specific ‘sustainable meat’ narratives on Twitter signal the multiplicity of debates that currently surround this contested issue which, as ‘matters of concern’, is still in the early stages of development.