Red Snow Research Articles

천연 게 향료 제조를 위한 농축 붉은 대게 가공 자숙액의 특성

This study was red snow crab Chionoecetes japonicus cooker effluent (RSCCE) for making a natural crab-like flavorant. The RSCCE (<TEX>$1\;^{\circ}Brix$</TEX> in the initial state) was concentrated up to <TEX>$40^{\circ}Brix$</TEX> to determine the optimal conditions for making a natural flavorant. During concentration, the amino-N content and total acidity increased with the concentration time, while the pH was maintained in range 7.94-8.78. In the acceptance test and quantitative description analysis (QDA), <TEX>$20^{\circ}Brix$</TEX> RSCCE had the best quality in terms of taste (5.87), odor (6.00), and overall acceptance (5.80). Of the taste compounds analyzed in <TEX>$20^{\circ}Brix$</TEX> RSCCE, lactic acid was an abundant non-volatile organic acid, and the nucleotide 5'-inosine monophosphate (IMP) was present, as were four free amino acids: tyrosine, glutamic acid, alanine and glycine. The taste and odor of boiled crabmeat were retained in <TEX>$20^{\circ}Brix$</TEX> RSCCE based on the QDA.

붉은 대게 가공부산물 농축중의 휘발성 향기성분 변화

To develop natural crab-like flavorants from red snow crab Chionoecetes japonicus cooker effluent (RSCCE), the flavor was analyzed during the concentration of RSCCE up to . Using solid phase microextraction (SPME)/gas chromatography (GC)/mass selective detection (MSD), 30 volatile flavor compounds were detected in four RSCCE samples (10, 20, 30, and ). These comprised 12 aromatic compounds, 5 N-containing compounds, 2 5-containing compounds, 2 alcohols, 2 aldehydes, and 7 miscellaneous compounds. The amounts of all volatiles except alcohols and aldehydes increased significantly with the concentration (p

Spatial distribution and abundance of red snow algae on the Harding Icefield, Alaska derived from a satellite image

Red snow caused by algal bloom is common on glaciers and snowfields worldwide. Description of spatial distributions of snow algal blooms is important for understanding snow algae's unique life in an extremely cold environment and for determining the effect of algae through the reduction of surface albedo. Here we present the spatial distribution of red snow algae on the Harding Icefield, Alaska retrieved from a satellite image. Field observations on the icefield conducted in August 2001 revealed visible red snow, particularly near the snowline. Field measurements of spectral reflectance on the surface revealed the specific spectral absorption of algal pigments. We found a significant correlation between snow algal biomass and a reflectance ratio of SPOT (Satellite Probatoire d' Observation de la Terre) satellite band of wavelength 610–680 nm to band 500–590 nm. Using this relationship between the reflectance ratio and algal biomass, we estimated the distribution and abundance of red snow across the icefield using a SPOT satellite image. The spatial distribution of red snow on the icefield obtained by mapping the reflectance ratio matched field observations across the icefield with more red algal blooms on the continental than the maritime side of the icefield. Area averaged mean carbon content estimated from the red algal biomass for the icefield on the image was 1.2 kg km−2.

Spring red snow phenomenon caused by iron accumulated around algal spores in alpine mires in Japan

Spring red snow phenomenon caused by iron accumulated around algal spores in alpine mires in Japan

A snow algal community on Akkem glacier in the Russian Altai mountains

AbstractSnow algae are cold-tolerant algae growing on snow and ice and have been reported on glaciers in many parts of the world. Blooms of snow algae can reduce the surface albedo of snow and ice and significantly affect their melting. In addition, snow algae found in ice cores can be potential indicators of the paleo-environment, making them of great interest both to the biology and the geophysics of glaciers. A snow algal community was investigated in 2002 and 2003 on Akkem glacier in the Russian Altai mountains, where no information on its biological community has previously been available. Five species of snow algae including green algae and cyanobacteria were observed on the glacier. Red snow due to a bloom of algae (Chloromonas sp.) was visually apparent in the snow area during our study periods. The total algal cell-volume biomass on the glacier ranged from 97 to 1156μL m−2, which is equivalent to that reported previously on glaciers in the Himalaya and Alaska. The community structure showed that Mesotaenium berggrenii and/or Ancylonema nordenskioeldii, which are common species on glaciers in the Northern Hemisphere, were dominant in the ice area, while Chloromonas sp. was dominant in the snow area. Such community structures are similar to those on Alaskan and Arctic glaciers but differ from those on Himalayan and Tibetan glaciers, even though the Altai mountains are geographically closer to the Himalaya and Tibet than to Alaska. The difference in algal communities between the Altaic and other glaciers is discussed together with physical and chemical conditions affecting the algae.

Analysis of element accumulation in cell wall attached and intracellular particles of snow algae by EELS and ESI

Snow algae frequently occur in alpine and polar permanent snow ecosystems and have developed adaptations to their harsh environment, where extreme temperature regimes high irradiation and low nutrient levels prevail. They live in a unique microhabitat, namely the liquid water between snow crystals. The predominant form appears as ‘red snow’ and in polar environment also ‘green snow’ frequently occurs. Light microscopy showed that most cells are densely covered by non-biotic particles of so far unknown composition. As snow normally contains very low amounts of nutrients, introduced mainly airborne like dust and precipitation, the inorganic particles at the surface of the snow algae may be important for their survival.By using electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) and electron spectroscopic imaging (ESI), we investigated element distribution in ultrathin sections of snow algae from different polar (Svalbard, 5ma.s.l., 79°N and maritime Antarctic, King George Island, 10ma.s.l., 62°S) and alpine habitats (2400–3100ma.s.l. Tyrol) for the present study. It turned out that the main elements of the cell wall attached particles are Si, Al, Fe and O independently from the origin of the snow algae. Interestingly, the same elements were also found in vacuolar compartments inside the cells. These vacuoles contain electron dense granules or crystals and are frequently found to be connected to the cortical cytoplasm. This finding suggests an uptake mechanism of the respective elements by pinocytosis. Co-transport of toxic aluminium together with silicon may be unavoidable as the inorganic nutrient uptake of the snow algae is limited to the thin water layer between the ice crystals. However, formation of insoluble aluminium silicates may serve as detoxification mechanism.

Photosynthesis, pigments and ultrastructure of the alpine snow alga Chlamydomonas nivalis

Snow algae inhabit most of the cold regions worldwide, where long-lasting snow fields are common. The ecophysiology of snow algae has been studied intensively in North America and occasionally in polar regions. In the European Alps, the systematics of snow algae have been studied mainly by light microscopy. We studied temperature and light-dependence of photosynthesis, and plastid and extraplastid red pigment composition of red snow algae (Chlamydomonas nivalis) from snow patches in the high Alps of Austria. Both photosynthetic and respiratory data support the cryophilic adaptation of snow algal cells, but C. nivalis produced oxygen without any inhibition at temperatures up to 20°C and maintained this for 1 h, at irradiances up to 1800 µmol m−2s−1. Chlorophyll and primary carotenoid pigment composition was similar to that found in most other Chlorophyta. Additionally, large amounts of free and esterified astaxanthin were located in cytoplasmic lipid globules. Light and electron microscopy showed that the cell walls were frequently covered with tightly bound inorganic particles. Occasionally fungus- or bacteria-like structures were attached to the wall. The typical adult cell contained a single central chloroplast. Cytoplasmic structures were often difficult to resolve optically, as densely packed peripheral lipid globules, containing secondary carotenoids, occupied most of the cell volume. These pigments may shield the chloroplast from high irradiation (thus reducing the risk of photoinhibition) and may also be a potential carbon source during unfavourable climate conditions or the formation of daughter cells.

Raman spectroscopy of senescing snow algae: pigmentation changes in an Antarctic cold desert extremophile

The FT-Raman spectra are described of green and red snow algae, Chlamydomona, involved in the colonization of exposed surfaces of the McLeod Glacier, Jane Col, Signy Island, situated at the northern edge of the Weddell Sea, Antarctica. The protective biochemicals produced by these extremophilic algae give rise to the so-called watermelon snow of Alpine regions. The red colour of the senescent algae is shown to derive from the accumulation of carotenoids and a deficiency of chlorophyll believed to arise from UV-radiation induced breakdown into phaecophytin. A comparison of the Raman spectra of young (green) and old (red) algae is effected and possible bio-markers for spectral detection on extraterrestrial icy moons and planets are identified.

근적외선 분광분석법을 이용한 Chitin 및 Chitosan의 탈단백 및 탈아세틸화도 측정

NIR spectroscopic analysis was used for the measurement of deproteinization and deacetylation to apply the merits of NIR spectroscopic analysis to the quality management in the process of chitin and chitosan production. In measuring squid pen and red snow crab shell, which are raw materials of chitin and chitosan by NIR there were typical peaks in 1200 nm, 1510 nm, 2050 nm and 2180 nm. Squid pen had somewhat higher peak than red snow crab shell. In producing chitin, amount of protein was decreased. Measuring it by NIR, reduction of protein caused by deproteinization was identified in producing chitin. Chitosan is a derivative material made from chitin by processing the deacetylation. During this processing, acetyl groups were removed and amide bends were appeared. From NIR spectra, peaks at 1530 nm and 2030 nm indicated amide II peak of chitosan, and these peaks were used for identifying the differences of structure between chitin and chitosan. The error in measurement of nonidentified sample was below <TEX>$1\%$</TEX> and the error in the standard curve was below 0.006. These errors were very low and the accuracy of NIR was considered to be superior to the existing methods.

Cartesian Dualism, and Universe as Turing Machine

In the field of computability and algorithmicity, there have recently been two essays that are, in my opinion, of great interest: Peter Slezak's Diagonal Deduction, and David Deutsch's Theory, the Church-Turing Principle and the Universal Quantum Computer. Briefly, the former shows that Descartes's Cogito argument is, in crucial places, structurally similar to Godel's proof that there are statements true but unprovable within a formal system such as Principia Mathematica, while the latter provides strong arguments for believing that the universe can be represented as a Turing machine. But suggestive though these essays are, still more suggestive, I think, are the implications of their conjoining. What I propose to do in this essay is to sketch the arguments of Slezak and of Deutsch, and then to discuss some of these implications, particularly for the establishment of a scientific theology. Slezak and Descartes Slezak's argument is quite simple. He begins by reviewing various accounts of Descartes's Cogito argument, and suggests that these accounts lack an essential ingredient: a plausible, textually faithful rational reconstruction of the argument. With a view to filling this lack, he observes that the representational character of ideas in Descartes makes them semantically analogous to pictures or sentences, the object of which is the physical world. Slezak's concern is to demonstrate that the reasoning employed by Descartes can be shown to be compatible with a physicalist account of the mind and, indeed, can be seen to follow from certain kinds of physical or information-processing arrangements-even though, he cautions, there are notoriously troublesome features of subjective, introspective experience which seem to be intractable to any physicalistic reduction (Slezak, 1983, 15). Slezak sets the stage by presenting pertinent observations by such thinkers as Wittgenstein and Gunderson. He quotes, for example, the following words of Gunderson: If a thoroughgoing physicalism . . . is true, why should it even seem so difficult for me to view my mind or self as an item wholly in the world? (Slezak, 1983, 17) Slezak suggests that perplexity such as that cited by Gunderson is of a particular type-one concerning the place of the entity itself in relation to the rest of the world-and using an example of Gunderson's, he points to a parallel between the apparent irreducibility of the mind's relation to the rest of the world and the fact (for instance) that the one thing a periscope cannot locate is its own cross-hairs. Yet, as Slezak implies, the parallel is of limited application; for although the periscope cannot see its own cross-hairs, both periscope and cross-hairs are both expressible in physical terms-whereas, of course, the mind and the body seem irreducible to each other. Slezak's next step is to adopt Gunderson's method of looking at the world W from the point of view of a person M. According to this method, will have an internal model W* of the world. Seen this way, it is logically impossible for itself to appear directly as a physical object in W* among the other physical objects represented in W*, since W* is itself part of M (Slezak, 1983, 19). Slezak is quick to point out, however, that for many ordinary purposes there is no contradiction in representing the self as a physical object. There are problems only when we try to push that representation too far. Next, Slezak seeks to rephrase Descartes's argument in Gunderson's terms. Descartes, of course, started by doubting the existence of the world; rephrased, this doubt can be expressed as the possibility that everything in W* fails to correspond to W. Slezak follows Descartes's own recommendation that thoughts must be arranged in an order like the natural order of the numbers (Slezak, 1983, 24) to achieve an enumeration of propositions to which assent would be given. Such an enumeration might look like the following:1 (1) Grass is green (2) Roses are red (3) Snow is white etc. …

Spring red snow phenomenon ‘Akashibo’ in the Ozegahara mire, Central Japan, with special reference to the distribution of invertebrates in red snow

Spring red snow phenomenon ‘Akashibo’ in the Ozegahara mire, Central Japan, with special reference to the distribution of invertebrates in red snow

Construct Validation of the Fairy Tale Test-Standardization Data

The conception of the Fairy Tale Test (FTT) rests on the association between fairy tales and unconscious processes. The stimulus material is derived from classic fairy tales and in particular the stories of Little Red Riding Hood and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. The sample of the study consisted of 800 Greek boys and girls 8, 10, and 12 years old from 3 socioeconomic levels. The material consists of 7 sets of cards with 3 pictures per set. The FTT is an individually administered instrument, whereby the child has to respond to questions concerning well-known fairy tale characters. The FTT assesses 26 personality variables. Construct validity was determined in a variety of ways: through factor analysis and correlations between the FTT and more objective measures such as the Children's Personality Questionnaire and the Rutter Behaviour Scales for Parents and Teachers. Factor analysis led to the formation of 8 primary factors: Reality Testing, Mother Image, Assertiveness, Orality, Possessiveness, Aggression, Helpfulness, and Depression. Teachers consider troubled children those who express Type A or "hostile" aggression, whereas parents evaluate troubled children as nonhelpful and depressed. Additional comparisons between the FTT and the other 2 instruments are presented.

New records of snow algae for New Zealand, from Mt Philistine, Arthur's Pass National Park

Eight out of nine species of snow algae occurring on Mt Philistine, Arthur's Pass National Park, are new records for New Zealand. Chlainomonas kolii, reported previously in snow beneath tree canopies in the USA, is responsible for blooms which colour the snow red. Chloromonas rubroleosa, which is found in red snow dominated by C. kolii, also occurs in continental Antarctica. Three other species of Chloromonas, including the relatively common bipolar alga previously known as Scotiella antarctica, occur in other snowfields on the mountain. The widely reported Raphidonema nivale was identified in cultures from many snow samples. Two species of chrysophyceans, Chromulina cf. elegans and Chrysophyceae sp. 2 (a cyst, of which the life cycle is not understood) occur in Mt Philistine snow. The few previous investigations of New Zealand snow algae have suffered from lack of culturing and observation of living material. Results presented here show that many more sites require detailed study using these techniques to improve our understanding of the biogeography of New Zealand snow algae, and for comparison with floras elsewhere to be meaningful.

Snow algae of the Windmill Islands, continental Antarctica: Chlorosarcina antarctica comb. nov. (Chlorophyceae, Chlorophyta) from pink snow, with discussion of Chlorosarcina and allied genera

A red snow alga previously identified as Chlamydomonas antarcticus Wille was found to be the spores of Chlorosarcina antarctica (Wille) H.U. Ling comb. nov. The spores were spherical, very variable in size, and individually enveloped in mucilage. Each spore released a mass of daughter cells, which divided in three planes to form cubical, loose aggregates of green cells embedded in mucilage. The spherical to broadly oval cells had a mucilaginous cell wall and a cup-shaped chloroplast, which lacked pyrenoids. The cells sometimes produced biflagellate, naked zoospores without stigmata. The flagellar basal apparatus of the zoospores had a clockwise orientation. Dichotomously branched, mucilaginous stalks characteristic of Hormotila were produced in old cultures. The species was often found in semipermanent snow drifts on the shores of small bays, and records to date show it to be restricted to the Southern Hemisphere. Algal snow samples had pH of 6.3–6.9 and conductivity of 39–44 μS cm−1. Two strains were isolated and are currently maintained at the Australian Antarctic Division. These did not grow above 10°C. The species was compared with a strain of Desmotetra stigmatica and with Chlorosarcina strain T105. The results confirm the validity of the genus Chlorosarcina and its retention in the Chlorophyceae.

Identifying regional dust transport pathways: ­application of kinematic trajectory modelling to a trans-Tasman case

A kinematic trajectory model is used to investigate potential pathways of dust transport from Australia to New Zealand. Historically, these have been assumed to follow rather direct west–east trajectories spanning 2 to 3 days, often resulting in red snow events in the Southern Alps of New Zealand. However, results from the present study which examined the route taken by air parcels originating in southern Australia during dust storms on 24 and 25 May 1994, indicate that trans-Tasman dust transport trajectories are more diverse than previously thought, and display considerable variation during single events. These more divergent pathways tie in more closely with aeolian dust sedimentation patterns identified by ocean coring in the Tasman Sea, and may account for the deposition of Australian dust on sub-Antarctic islands located well south of the Australian continent. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

UV-absorbing mycosporine-like compounds in planktonic and benthic organisms from a high-mountain lake

We investigated the occurrence, concentration and composition of mycosporines (mycosporine-like amino acids, MAAs) in planktonic organisms and epilithic cyanobacteria from a clear water high-mountain lake situated in the Central Alps, Austria. Two bi-substituted MAAs were identified by HPLC in extracts made of 1996 plankton samples with 90 % aqueous methanol, i.e. asterina-330 (&= = 330 nm) and shinorine (km = 334 run). Extracts with 20 % aqueous methanol for 2 h at 45 “C revealed the additional presence of another MAA tentatively identified as palythine (&.,, = 320nm) in the 1998 planktonic assemblage. In the upper 3 m of the water column the total concentration of MAAs decreased exponentially with depth, but the maxima for both absolute and chlorophyll-a specific concentrations were. observed close to the bottom at 8.5 m depth. This was explained by the accumulation of MAAs in the copepod’cyclops abyssorum tatricus that stays in deep water, during daytime. The copepodite III stage contained the 3 MAAs found in phytoplankton but also the mono-substituted compound, mycosporine-glycine (mycosporine-gly: & = 310 nm). The concentration of MAAs in C. abyssorum tatricus was highest for shinorine (1.45 % of the dry weight) and lowest for mycosporine-gly (0.02 % of the dry weight). Epilithic cyanobacteria had a more diverse MAA spectrum than plankton, and produced not only asterina-330 and shinorine but also palythinol (&, = 332 nm), mycosporine-gly and two unidentified compounds with &,,, = 330 and 340nm. The composition and also the relative abundance of the cyanobacterial MAAs changed with depth. Mycosporine-gly was found at the lakeshore where Gloeocapsa sp. dominates, but it was absent at 0.5 and 2.5 m depth dominated by Schizothrix sp. and Tolipothrix sp., respectively. We could not detect any MAAs in the cysts of the red snow alga Chlamydomonas nivalis, which develops on top of the winter cover shortly be’ Authors’ addresses: University of Innsbruck, InstitutGof Zoology and Limnology, Technikerstr. 25, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria. E-mail: ruben.sommaruga@uibk.ac.at. 2 Max-Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology, Celsiusstr. 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany. * Author for correspondence. 0003-9136/99/0144-0255 $3.75

Red snow: is it safe to eat? A pilot study.

The objective of this study was to determine if the ingestion of snow contaminated with Chlamydomonas nivalis causes diarrhea. The design was a single-blind crossover. Subjects were seven healthy volunteers, aged 24-56 who ingested 500 g of snow contaminated with C. nivalis. Outcome was measured by stool and diarrhea frequency. No differences in stool or diarrhea frequency were noted between treatment and placebo groups. The conclusion is that in this pilot study, there was no evidence supporting the concern that ingestion of "red snow" causes diarrhea.

Tragedy in the Snow

safety or health, they just wanted the coal out of the ground. I expect more from Congress. Don't weaken the federal law; let MSHA have the tools it needs to protect our health and safety." When Shepherd finished testifying, the hearing room erupted with applause for the only time that day. Coal miners, frustrated by the repeated assaults (oftentimes from those who knew little or nothing about the realities of mining) on a federal law and agency that has served them well, reacted spontaneously to the experiential wisdom of one of their own. Danny Shepherd knows what it's like to work deep inside the bowels of a mountain, in a dark, dusty maze of tunnels only thirty to fifty inches high, amidst powerful machinery and potentially explosive gases and coal dust, where the slightest mistake can mean the loss of an arm, a leg, or his life. He knows what it's like to work in a mine where the operator's primary concern is not his health and safety, but how much coal the mining crew can gouge from the coal seam, and where the bosses regularly ignore basic safety requirements to boost production. Shepherd knows what it's like to go to work wondering whether he'll have enough air to breathe, whether the worn electrical cables he'll be handling will protect him from electrocution, or whether the creaking roof over his head will fall and kill him. Indeed, Shepherd knows all too well the arduous and uncertain life of an Eastern Kentucky coal miner. Ballenger and his colleagues should listen to Shepherd and heed his advice, but—as sure as the sun will rise tomorrow—you know they won't. Privileged Republican Congressmen don't have to worry about working underground, about breathing bad air, or about the roof in their workplace falling—and, frankly, they don't care about those who do. Mine safety just isn't part of the right wing's agenda. There's no money in it. Just lives. Tragedy in the Snow Red snow, scattered feathers, a bird cries for his mate. The cat sleeps peacefully, without remorse. —Aubrey G. Bebout ...

Sierra Nevada, California, U.S.A., Snow Algae: Snow Albedo Changes, Algal-Bacterial Interrelationships, and Ultraviolet Radiation Effects

In the Tioga Pass area (upper LeeVining Creek watershed) of the Sierra Nevada (California), snow algae were prevalent in the early summers of 1993 and 1994. Significant negative correlations were found between snow albedo and algal cell numbers, and between albedo and snow water content. However, red snow caused by algal blooms did not decrease mean albedos in representative snowfields. This was due to algal patchiness; mean albedos would not decrease over the whole water catchment basin; and water supplies would not be affected by the presence of algae. Albedo was also reduced by dirt on the snow, and wind-blown dirt may provide a source of allochthonous organic matter for snow bacteria. However, several observations emphasize the importance of an autochthonous source for bacterial nutrition. Bacterial abundances and production rates were higher in red snow containing algae than in noncolored snow. Bacterial production was about two orders-of-magnitude lower than photosynthetic algal production. Bacteria were also sometimes attached to algal cells. In experiments where snow algae were contained in UV-transmitting quartz tubes, ultraviolet radiation inhibited red snow (collected from open, sunlit areas) photosynthesis about 25%, while green snow (collected from forested, shady locations) photosynthesis was inhibited by 85%. Methanol extracts of red snow algae had greater absorbances in blue and UV spectral regions than did algae from green snow. These differences in UV responses and spectra may be due to habitat (sun vs. shade) differences, or may be genetic, since different species were found in the two snow types. However, both habitat and genetic mechanisms may be operating together to cause these differences.

Gone with the wind — a second blow against spontaneous generation

Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg can be considered to be the founder of the science of air-borne micro-organisms and thus aerobiology. The bicentennial of his birth (he was born on Easter Sunday, April 19th, 1795), however marks the beginning of several sciences and fields of science. He is the founder of geomicrobiology, protistology, co-founder of microbiology, scientific microscopy, neurobiology, and last not least of the theory of the Earth as a living entity, including rocks and rock deposits. The number of genera and species of bacteria, spirochaetes, fungi, diatoms, radiolaria, protozoa, and rotifera which were first described by him is in the hundreds. He is known as the discoverer and detailed describer of some of the most common bioluminescent marine organisms (Noctiluca miliaris andPeridinium), as well as the person who first deciphered the secret of the bloody hostia (Monas orBacterium prodigiosum, or more correctlySerratia marcescens), of the red snow and of the ‘meteor paper’ or ‘paper meteorites’. In this commemorative paper his work on air-borne dust and air-borne micro-organisms is reviewed.