Red Sequence Galaxies Research Articles

The morphological transformation of red sequence galaxies in clusters since z ∼ 1

The study of galaxy morphology is fundamental to understand the physical processes driving the structural evolution of galaxies. It has long been known that dense environments host high fractions of early-type galaxies and low fractions of late-type galaxies, indicating that the environment affects the structural evolution of galaxies. In this paper we present an analysis of the morphological composition of red sequence galaxies in a sample of 9 galaxy clusters at $0.8<z<1.5$ drawn from the HAWK-I cluster survey (HCS), with the aim of investigating the evolutionary paths of galaxies with different morphologies. We classify galaxies according to their apparent bulge-to-total light ratio and compare with red sequence galaxies from the lower-redshift WINGS and EDisCS surveys. We find that, while the HCS red sequence is dominated by elliptical galaxies at all luminosities and stellar masses, the WINGS red sequence is dominated by elliptical galaxies only at its bright end ($M_V<-21.0$ mag), while S0s become the most frequent class at fainter luminosities. Disc-dominated galaxies comprise 10-14\% of the red sequence population in the low (WINGS) and high (HCS) redshift samples, although their fraction increases up to 40\% at $0.4 < z < 0.8$ (EDisCS). We find a 20\% increase in the fraction of S0 galaxies from $z \sim 1.5$ to $z \sim 0.05$ on the red sequence. These results suggest that elliptical and S0 galaxies follow different evolutionary histories and, in particular, that S0 galaxies result, at least at intermediate luminosities ($-22.0 < M_V < -20.0$), from the morphological transformation of quiescent spiral galaxies.

Size growth of red-sequence early-type galaxies in clusters in the last 10 Gyr (Corrigendum)

Size growth of red-sequence early-type galaxies in clusters in the last 10 Gyr <i>(Corrigendum)</i>

A direct measurement of the high-mass end of the velocity dispersion function at z ∼ 0.55 from SDSS-III/BOSS

We report the first direct spectroscopic measurement of the velocity dispersion function (VDF) for the high-mass red sequence (RS) galaxy population at redshift $z\sim0.55$. We achieve high precision by using a sample of 600,000 massive galaxies with spectra from the Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey (BOSS) of the third Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS-III), covering stellar masses $M_*\gtrsim10^{11}~M_{\odot}$. We determine the VDF by projecting the joint probability-density function (PDF) of luminosity $L$ and velocity dispersion $\sigma$, i.e. $p(L,\sigma)$, defined by our previous measurements of the RS luminosity function and $L-\sigma$ relation for this sample. These measurements were corrected from red--blue galaxy population confusion, photometric blurring, incompleteness and selection effects within a forward-modeling framework that furthermore correctly accommodates the low spectroscopic signal-to-noise ratio of individual BOSS spectra. Our $z\sim0.55$ RS VDF is in overall agreement with the $z\sim0$ early-type galaxy (ETG) VDF at $\log_{10}\sigma\gtrsim2.47$, however the number density of $z=0.55$ RS galaxies that we report is larger than that of $z=0$ ETG galaxies at $2.35\gtrsim\log_{10}\sigma\gtrsim 2.47$. The extrapolation of an intermediate-mass L-$\sigma$ relation towards the high-mass end in previous low-z works may be responsible for this disagreement. Evolutionary interpretation of this comparison is also subject to differences in the way the respective samples are selected; these differences can be mitigated in future work by analyzing $z=0$ SDSS data using the same framework presented in this paper. We also provide the sample PDF for the RS population (i.e. uncorrected for incompleteness), which is a key ingredient for gravitational lensing analyses using BOSS.

The Dependence of Cluster Galaxy Properties on the Central Entropy of Their Host Cluster

Abstract We present a study of the connection between brightest cluster galaxies (BCGs) and their host galaxy clusters. Using galaxy clusters at from the Hectospec Cluster Survey (HeCS) with X-ray information from the Archive of Chandra Cluster Entropy Profile Tables (ACCEPT), we confirm that BCGs in low central entropy clusters are well aligned with the X-ray center. Additionally, the magnitude difference between BCG and the second brightest galaxy also correlates with the central entropy of the intracluster medium. From the red-sequence (RS) galaxies, we cannot find significant dependence of RS color scatter and stellar population on the central entropy of the intracluster medium of their host cluster. However, BCGs in low-entropy clusters are systematically less massive than those in high-entropy clusters, although this is dependent on the method used to derive the stellar mass of BCGs. In contrast, the stellar velocity dispersion of BCGs shows no dependence on BCG activity and cluster central entropy. This implies that the potential of the BCG is established earlier and the activity leading to optical emission lines is dictated by the properties of the intracluster medium in the cluster core.

Galaxy Populations in Massive Galaxy Clusters to $z$ = 1.1: Color Distribution, Concentration, Halo Occupation Number and Red Sequence Fraction

We study the galaxy populations in 74 Sunyaev Zeldovich Effect (SZE) selected clusters from the South Pole Telescope (SPT) survey that have been imaged in the science verification phase of the Dark Energy Survey (DES). The sample extends up to $z\sim 1.1$ with $4 \times 10^{14} M_{\odot}\le M_{200}\le 3\times 10^{15} M_{\odot}$. Using the band containing the 4000~\AA\ break and its redward neighbor, we study the color-magnitude distributions of cluster galaxies to $\sim m_*+2$, finding: (1) the intrinsic rest frame $g-r$ color width of the red sequence (RS) population is $\sim$0.03 out to $z\sim0.85$ with a preference for an increase to $\sim0.07$ at $z=1$ and (2) the prominence of the RS declines beyond $z\sim0.6$. The spatial distribution of cluster galaxies is well described by the NFW profile out to $4R_{200}$ with a concentration of $c_{\mathrm{g}} = 3.59^{+0.20}_{-0.18}$, $5.37^{+0.27}_{-0.24}$ and $1.38^{+0.21}_{-0.19}$ for the full, the RS and the blue non-RS populations, respectively, but with $\sim40$\% to 55\% cluster to cluster variation and no statistically significant redshift or mass trends. The number of galaxies within the virial region $N_{200}$ exhibits a mass trend indicating that the number of galaxies per unit total mass is lower in the most massive clusters, and shows no significant redshift trend. The red sequence (RS) fraction within $R_{200}$ is $(68\pm3)$\% at $z=0.46$, varies from $\sim$55\% at $z=1$ to $\sim$80\% at $z=0.1$, and exhibits intrinsic variation among clusters of $\sim14$\%. We discuss a model that suggests the observed redshift trend in RS fraction favors a transformation timescale for infalling field galaxies to become RS galaxies of 2 to 3~Gyr.

M32 Analogs? A Population of Massive Ultra-compact Dwarf and Compact Elliptical Galaxies in Intermediate-redshift Clusters

Abstract We report the discovery of relatively massive, M32-like ultra compact dwarf (UCD) and compact elliptical (CE) galaxy candidates in massive galaxy clusters imaged by the Cluster Lensing And Supernova survey with Hubble (CLASH) survey. Examining the nearly unresolved objects in the survey, we identify a sample of compact objects concentrated around the cluster central galaxies with colors similar to cluster red sequence galaxies. Their colors and magnitudes suggest stellar masses around . More than half of these galaxies have half-light radii smaller than 200 pc, falling into the category of massive UCDs and CEs, with properties similar to M32. The properties are consistent with a tidal stripping origin, but we cannot rule out the possibility that they are early-formed compact objects trapped in massive dark matter halos. The 17 CLASH clusters studied in this work on average contain 2.7 of these objects in their central 0.3 Mpc and 0.6 in their central 50 kpc. Our study demonstrates the possibility of statistically characterizing UCDs/CEs with a large set of uniform imaging survey data.

STAR FORMATION IN THE CLUSTER MERGER DLSCL J0916.2+2953

ABSTRACT We investigate star formation in DLSCL J0916.2+2953, a dissociative merger of two clusters at z = 0.53 that has progressed Gyr since the first pass-through. We attempt to reveal the effects a collision may have had on the evolution of the cluster galaxies by tracing their star formation history. We probe current and recent activity to identify a possible star formation event at the time of the merger, using EW( ), EW( ), and measured from the composite spectra of 64 cluster and 153 coeval field galaxies. We supplement Keck DEep Imaging Multi-Object Spectrograph spectra with DLS and Hubble Space Telescope imaging, to determine the color, stellar mass, and morphology of each galaxy. We also conduct a comprehensive study of the populations in this complex structure. Spectral results indicate the average cluster and cluster red sequence galaxies experienced no enhanced star formation relative to the surrounding field during the merger, ruling out a predominantly merger-quenched population. We find that the average blue galaxy in the North cluster is currently active, and that the South cluster is currently post-starburst, having undergone a recent star formation event. Although the North activity could be latent or long-term merger effects, a young blue stellar population and irregular geometry suggest the cluster was still forming prior the collision. Even though the South activity coincides with the time of the merger, the blue early-type population could be a result of secular cluster processes. The evidence suggests that the dearth or surfeit of activity is indiscernible from normal cluster galaxy evolution.

THE RED SEQUENCE AT BIRTH IN THE GALAXY CLUSTER Cl J1449+0856 AT z = 2

ABSTRACT We use Hubble Space Telescope/WFC3 imaging to study the red population in the IR-selected, X-ray detected, low-mass cluster Cl J1449+0856 at z = 2, one of the few bona fide established clusters discovered at this redshift, and likely a typical progenitor of an average massive cluster today. This study explores the presence and significance of an early red sequence in the core of this structure, investigating the nature of red-sequence galaxies, highlighting environmental effects on cluster galaxy populations at high redshift, and at the same time underlining similarities and differences with other distant dense environments. Our results suggest that the red population in the core of Cl J1449+0856 is made of a mixture of quiescent and dusty star-forming galaxies, with a seedling of the future red sequence already growing in the very central cluster region, and already characterizing the inner cluster core with respect to lower-density environments. On the other hand, the color–magnitude diagram of this cluster is definitely different from that of lower-redshift z ≲ 1 clusters, as well as of some rare particularly evolved massive clusters at similar redshift, and it is suggestive of a transition phase between active star formation and passive evolution occurring in the protocluster and established lower-redshift cluster regimes.

TheK-band luminosity functions of cluster galaxies

We derive the galaxy luminosity function in the $K_s$ band for galaxies in 24 clusters to provide a local reference for higher redshift studies and to analyse how and if the luminosity function varies according to environment and cluster properties. We use new, deep $K$ band imaging and match the photometry to available redshift information and to optical photometry from the SDSS or the UKST/POSS: $>80\%$ of the galaxies to $K \sim 14.5$ have measured redshifts. We derive composite luminosity functions, for the entire sample and for cluster subsamples . We consider the luminosity functions for red sequence and blue cloud galaxies. The full composite luminosity function has $K^*=12.79 \pm 0.14$ ($M_K=-24.81$) and $\alpha=-1.41 \pm 0.10$. We find that $K^*$ is largely unaffected by the environment but that the slope $\alpha$ increases towards lower mass clusters and clusters with Bautz-Morgan type $<$ II. The red sequence luminosity function seems to be approximately universal (within errors) in all environments: it has parameters $K^*=13.16 \pm 0.15$ ($M_K=-24.44$) and $\alpha=-1.00 \pm 0.12$ (for all galaxies). Blue galaxies do not show a good fit to a Schechter function, but the best values for its parameters are $K^*=13.51 \pm 0.41$ ($M_K=-24.09$) and $\alpha=-1.60 \pm 0.29$: we do not have enough statistics to consider environmental variations for these galaxies. We find some evidence that $K^*$ in clusters is brighter than in the field and $\alpha$ is steeper, but note this comparison is based (for the field) on 2MASS photometry, while our data are considerably deeper.

THE QUENCHING TIMESCALE AND QUENCHING RATE OF GALAXIES

ABSTRACT The average star formation rate (SFR) in galaxies has been declining since the redshift of 2. A fraction of galaxies quench and become quiescent. We constrain two key properties of the quenching process: the quenching timescale and the quenching rate among galaxies. We achieve this by analyzing the galaxy number density profile in NUV−u color space and the distribution in NUV−u versus u − i color–color diagram with a simple toy-model framework. We focus on galaxies in three mass bins between 1010 and 1010.6 M ⊙. In the NUV−u versus u − i color–color diagram, the red u − i galaxies exhibit a different slope from the slope traced by the star-forming galaxies. This angled distribution and the number density profile of galaxies in NUV−u space strongly suggest that the decline of the SFR in galaxies has to accelerate before they turn quiescent. We model this color–color distribution with a two-phase exponential decline star formation history. The models with an e-folding time in the second phase (the quenching phase) of 0.5 Gyr best fit the data. We further use the NUV−u number density profile to constrain the quenching rate among star-forming galaxies as a function of mass. Adopting an e-folding time of 0.5 Gyr in the second phase (or the quenching phase), we found the quenching rate to be 19%/Gyr, 25%/Gyr and 33%/Gyr for the three mass bins. These are upper limits of the quenching rate as the transition zone could also be populated by rejuvenated red-sequence galaxies.

GLOBULAR CLUSTERS, ULTRACOMPACT DWARFS, AND DWARF GALAXIES IN ABELL 2744 AT A REDSHIFT OF 0.308

ABSTRACT We report a photometric study of globular clusters (GCs), ultracompact dwarfs (UCDs), and dwarf galaxies in the giant merging galaxy cluster Abell 2744 at z = 0.308. Color–magnitude diagrams of the point sources derived from deep F814W (rest frame r′) and F105W (rest frame I) images of Abell 2744 in the Hubble Space Telescope Frontier Field show a rich population of point sources, which have colors that are similar to those of typical GCs. These sources are as bright as (26.0 &lt; F814W(Vega) ≤ 29.5) mag, being mostly UCDs and bright GCs in Abell 2744. The luminosity function (LF) of these sources shows a break at (F814W ≈ 28.0) mag, indicating a boundary between UCDs and bright GCs. The numbers of GCs and UCDs are estimated to be 1,711,640+589,760 −430,500 and 147 ± 26, respectively. The clustercentric radial number density profiles of the UCDs and bright GCs show similar slopes, but these profiles are much steeper than those of the dwarf galaxies and the mass density profile based on gravitational lensing analysis. We derive an LF of the red sequence galaxies for mag. The faint end of this LF is fit well by a flat power law with , showing no faint upturn. These results support the galaxy-origin scenario for bright UCDs: they are the nuclei of dwarf galaxies that are stripped when they pass close to the center of massive galaxies or a galaxy cluster, while some of the faint UCDs are at the bright end of the GCs.

Near-ultraviolet signatures of environment-driven galaxy quenching in Sloan Digital Sky Survey groups

We have investigated the effect of group environment on residual star formation in galaxies, using Galex NUV galaxy photometry with the SDSS group catalogue of Yang et al. (2007). We compared the (NUV $- r$) colours of grouped and non-grouped galaxies, and find a significant increase in the fraction of red sequence galaxies with blue (NUV $- r$) colours outside of groups. When comparing galaxies in mass matched samples of satellite (non-central), and non-grouped galaxies, we found a > 4{\sigma} difference in the distribution of (NUV $- r$) colours, and an (NUV $- r$) blue fraction $> 3{\sigma}$ higher outside groups. A comparison of satellite and non-grouped samples has found the NUV fraction is a factor of $\sim2$ lower for satellite galaxies between $10^{10.5}M_{\bigodot}$ and $10^{10.7}M_{\bigodot}$, showing that higher mass galaxies are more able to form stars when not influenced by a group potential. There was a higher (NUV $- r$) blue fraction of galaxies with lower Sersic indices (n < 3) outside of groups, not seen in the satellite sample. We have used stellar population models of Bruzual & Charlot (2003) with multiple burst, or exponentially declining star formation histories to find that many of the (NUV $- r$) blue non-grouped galaxies can be explained by a slow ($\sim 2$ Gyr) decay of star formation, compared to the satellite galaxies. We suggest that taken together, the difference in (NUV $- r$) colours between samples can be explained by a population of secularly evolving, non-grouped galaxies, where star formation declines slowly. This slow channel is less prevalent in group environments where more rapid quenching can occur.

Size growth of red-sequence early-type galaxies in clusters in the last 10 Gyr

We carried out a photometric and structural analysis in the rest-frame $V$ band of a mass-selected ($\log M/M_\odot >10.7$) sample of red-sequence galaxies in 14 galaxy clusters, 6 of which are at $z>1.45$. To this end, we reduced/analyzed about 300 orbits of multicolor images taken with the Advanced Camera for Survey and the Wide Field Camera 3 on the Hubble Space Telescope. We uniformly morphologically classified galaxies from $z=0.023$ to $z=1.803$, and we homogeneously derived sizes (effective radii) for the entire sample. Furthermore, our size derivation allows, and therefore is not biased by, the presence of the usual variety of morphological structures seen in early-type galaxies, such as bulges, bars, disks, isophote twists, and ellipiticy gradients. By using such a mass-selected sample, composed of 244 red-sequence early-type galaxies, we find that the $\log$ of the galaxy size at a fixed stellar mass, $\log M/M_\odot= 11$ has increased with time at a rate of $0.023\pm0.002$ dex per Gyr over the last 10 Gyr, in marked contrast with the threefold increase found in the literature for galaxies in the general field over the same period. This suggests, at face value, that secular processes should be excluded as the primary drivers of size evolution because we observed an environmental environmental dependent size growth. Using spectroscopic ages of Coma early-type galaxies we also find that recently quenched early-type galaxies are a numerically minor population not different enough in size to alter the mean size at a given mass, which implies that the progenitor bias is minor, i.e., that the size evolution measured by selecting galaxies at the redshift of observation is indistinguishable from the one that compares ancestors and descendents.

RECENT GALAXY MERGERS AND RESIDUAL STAR FORMATION OF RED SEQUENCE GALAXIES IN GALAXY CLUSTERS

ABSTRACT This study explored the Galaxy Evolution Explorer ultraviolet (UV) properties of optical red sequence galaxies in four rich Abell clusters at . In particular, we tried to find a hint of merger-induced recent star formation (RSF) in red sequence galaxies. Using the NUV colors of the galaxies, RSF fractions were derived based on various criteria for post-merger galaxies and normal galaxies. Following k-correction, about 36% of the post-merger galaxies were classified as RSF galaxies with a conservative criterion (NUV ), and that number was doubled (∼72%) when using a generous criterion (NUV ). The trend was the same when we restricted the sample to galaxies within 0.5 × R 200. Post-merger galaxies with strong UV emission showed more violent, asymmetric features in the deep optical images. The RSF fractions did not show any trend along the clustocentric distance within R 200. We performed a Dressler–Shectman test to check whether the RSF galaxies had any correlation with the substructures in the galaxy clusters. Within R 200 of each cluster, the RSF galaxies did not appear to be preferentially related to the clusters’ substructures. Our results suggested that only 30% of RSF red sequence galaxies show morphological hints of recent galaxy mergers. This implies that internal processes (e.g., stellar mass loss or hot gas cooling) for the supply of cold gas to early-type galaxies may play a significant role in the residual star formation of early-type galaxies at a recent epoch.

Galaxy populations in the 26 most massive galaxy clusters in the South Pole Telescope SPT-SZ survey

We present a study of the optical properties of the 26 most massive galaxy clusters selected within the SPT-SZ 2500 deg$^2$ survey. This Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect selected sample spans a redshift range of 0.10 < z < 1.13. We measure the galaxy radial profile, the luminosity function (LF), and the halo occupation number (HON) using optical data with a typical depth of $m^*$ + 2. The stacked radial profiles are consistent with a NFW profile with a concentration of $2.84^{+0.40}_{-0.37}$ for the red sequence (RS) and $2.36^{+0.38}_{-0.35}$ for the total population. Stacking the data in multiple redshift bins shows a hint of redshift evolution in the concentration when both the total population is used, and when only RS galaxies are used (at 2.1$\sigma$ and 2.8$\sigma$, respectively). The stacked LF shows a faint end slope $\alpha = -1.06^{+0.04}_{-0.03}$ for the total and $\alpha = -0.80^{+0.04}_{-0.03}$ for the RS population. The redshift evolution of $m^*$ is found to be consistent with a passively evolving Composite Stellar Population (CSP) model. By adopting the CSP model predictions, we explore the redshift evolution of the schechter parameters $\alpha$ and $\phi^*$. We find $\alpha$ for the total population to be consistent with no evolution (0.3$\sigma$), while evidence of evolution for the red galaxies is mildly significant (1.1-2.1$\sigma$). The data show that the density $\phi^*$/E$^2$(z) decreases with redshift, in tension with the self-similar expectation at a 2.4$\sigma$ level for the total population. The measured HON-mass relation has a lower normalization than previous studies at low redshift. Finally, our data support HON redshift evolution at a 2.1$\sigma$ level, with clusters at higher redshift containing fewer galaxies per unit mass to $m^*$ + 3 than their low-z counterparts [abridged].

Morphological evolution of cluster red sequence galaxies in the past 9 Gyr

Galaxies arrive on the red sequences of clusters at high redshift ($z>1$) once their star formation is quenched and evolve passively thereafter. However, we have previously found that cluster red sequence galaxies (CRSGs) undergo significant morphological evolution subsequent to the cessation of star formation, at some point in the past 9-10~Gyr. Through a detailed study of a large sample of cluster red sequence galaxies spanning $0.2<z<1.4$ we elucidate the details of this evolution. Below $z \sim 0.5-0.6$ (in the last 5-6 Gyr) there is little or no morphological evolution in the population as a whole, unlike in the previous 4-5 Gyrs. Over this earlier time (i) disk-like systems with S{\'e}rsic $n < 2$ progressively disappear, as (ii) the range of their axial ratios similarly decreases, removing the most elongated systems (those consistent with thin disks seen at an appreciable inclination angle), and (iii) radial colour gradients (bluer outwards) decrease in an absolute sense from significant age-related gradients to a residual level consistent with the metallicity-induced gradients seen in low redshift cluster members. The distribution of their effective radii shows some evidence of evolution, consistent with growth of {\it at most} a factor $<1.5$ between $z\sim 1.4$ and $z \sim 0.5$, significantly less than for comparable field galaxies, while the distribution of their central ($<1$kpc) bulge surface densities shows no evolution at least at $z<1$. A simple model involving the fading and thickening of a disk component after comparatively recent quenching (after $z\sim 1.5$) around an otherwise passively evolving older spheroid component is consistent with all of these findings.

The high-mass end of the red sequence atz∼ 0.55 from SDSS-III/BOSS: completeness, bimodality and luminosity function

We have developed an analytical method based on forward-modeling techniques to characterize the high-mass end of the red sequence (RS) galaxy population at redshift $z\sim0.55$, from the DR10 BOSS CMASS spectroscopic sample, which comprises $\sim600,000$ galaxies. The method, which follows an unbinned maximum likelihood approach, allows the deconvolution of the intrinsic CMASS colour-colour-magnitude distributions from photometric errors and selection effects. This procedure requires modeling the covariance matrix for the i-band magnitude, g-r colour and r-i colour using Stripe 82 multi-epoch data. Our results indicate that the error-deconvolved intrinsic RS distribution is consistent, within the photometric uncertainties, with a single point ($<0.05~{\rm{mag}}$) in the colour-colour plane at fixed magnitude, for a narrow redshift slice. We have computed the high-mass end ($^{0.55}M_i \lesssim -22$) of the $^{0.55}i$-band RS Luminosity Function (RS LF) in several redshift slices within the redshift range $0.52<z<0.63$. In this narrow redshift range, the evolution of the RS LF is consistent, within the uncertainties in the modeling, with a passively-evolving model with $\Phi_* = (7.248 \pm 0.204) \times10^{-4}$ Mpc$^{-3}$ mag$^{-1}$, fading at a rate of $1.5\pm0.4$ mag per unit redshift. We report RS completeness as a function of magnitude and redshift in the CMASS sample, which will facilitate a variety of galaxy-evolution and clustering studies using BOSS. Our forward-modeling method lays the foundations for future studies using other dark-energy surveys like eBOSS or DESI, which are affected by the same type of photometric blurring/selection effects.

It is not easy being green: the evolution of galaxy colour in the EAGLE simulation

We examine the evolution of intrinsic u-r colours of galaxies in the EAGLE cosmological hydrodynamical simulations, which has been shown to reproduce the observed redshift z=0.1 colour-magnitude distribution well. The median u-r of star-forming ('blue cloud') galaxies reddens by 1 mag from z=2 to 0 at fixed stellar mass, as their specific star formation rates decrease with time. A red sequence starts to build-up around z=1, due to the quenching of low-mass satellite galaxies at the faint end, and due to the quenching of more massive central galaxies by their active galactic nuclei (AGN) at the bright end. This leaves a dearth of intermediate-mass red sequence galaxies at z=1, which is mostly filled in by z=0. We quantify the time-scales of colour transition due to satellite and AGN quenching, finding that most galaxies spend less than 2 Gyr in the 'green valley'. On examining the trajectories of galaxies in a colour-stellar mass diagram, we identify three characteristic tracks that galaxies follow (quiescently star-forming, quenching and rejuvenating galaxies) and quantify the fraction of galaxies that follow each track.

The accelerated build-up of the red sequence in high-redshift galaxy clusters

We analyse the evolution of the red sequence in a sample of galaxy clusters at redshifts $0.8<z<1.5$ taken from the HAWK-I Cluster Survey (HCS). The comparison with the low-redshift ($0.04<z<0.08$) sample of the WIde-field Nearby Galaxy-cluster Survey (WINGS) and other literature results shows that the slope and intrinsic scatter of the cluster red sequence have undergone little evolution since $z=1.5$. We find that the luminous-to-faint ratio and the slope of the faint end of the luminosity distribution of the HCS red sequence are consistent with those measured in WINGS, implying that there is no deficit of red galaxies at magnitudes fainter than $M_V^*$ at high redshifts. We find that the most massive HCS clusters host a population of bright red sequence galaxies at $M_V < -22.0$ mag, which are not observed in low-mass clusters. Interestingly, we also note the presence of a population of very bright ($M_V < -23.0$ mag) and massive (${\log(M_*/M_\odot)} > 11.5$) red sequence galaxies in the WINGS clusters, which do not include only the brightest cluster galaxies and which are not present in the HCS clusters, suggesting that they formed at epochs later than $z=0.8$. The comparison with the luminosity distribution of a sample of passive red sequence galaxies drawn from the COSMOS/UltraVISTA field in the photometric redshift range $0.8<z_{phot}<1.5$ shows that the red sequence in clusters is more developed at the faint end, suggesting that halo mass plays an important role in setting the time-scales for the build-up of the red sequence.

Properties of galaxies around AGNs with the most massive supermassive black holes revealed by clustering analysis

Abstract We present results of the clustering analysis between active galactic nuclei (AGNs) and galaxies at redshift 0.1–1.0, which was performed to investigate the properties of galaxies associated with the AGNs and reveal the nature of the fueling mechanism of supermassive black holes (SMBHs). We used 8059 AGNs/quasi-stellar objects (QSOs) for which virial masses of individual SMBHs were measured, and divided them into four mass groups.Cross-correlation analysis was performed to reconfirm our previous result that cross-correlation length increases with SMBH mass MBH; we obtained consistent results. A linear bias of AGN for each mass group was measured as 1.47 for MBH = 107.5–108.2 M⊙ and 3.08 for MBH = 109–1010 M⊙. The averaged color and luminosity distributions of galaxies around the AGNs/QSOs were also derived for each mass group. The galaxy color Dopt-IR was estimated from a spectral energy distribution (SED) constructed from a catalog derived by merging the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) and the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey (UKIDSS) catalogs. The distributions of color and luminosity were derived by a subtraction method, which does not require redshift information of galaxies. The main results of this work are as follows. (1) A linear bias increases by a factor of two from the lower-mass group to the highest-mass group. (2) The environment around AGNs with the most massive SMBHs (MBH &amp;gt; 109 M⊙) is dominated by red sequence galaxies. (3) Marginal indication of decline in luminosity function at dimmer side of MIR &amp;gt; −19.5 is found for galaxies around AGNs with MBH = 108.2–109 M⊙ and nearest redshift group (z = 0.1–0.3). These results indicate that AGNs with the most massive SMBHs reside in haloes where a large fraction of galaxies have been transited to the red sequence. The accretion of hot halo gas as well as recycled gas from evolving stars can be one of the plausible mechanisms to fuel the SMBHs above ∼ 109 M⊙.