Red Kangaroo Research Articles

Cutaneous leishmaniasis in red kangaroos: isolation and characterisation of the causative organisms

This is the first report of cutaneous leishmaniasis in kangaroos where infection was acquired within Australia. The diagnosis is based on the clinical criteria used for humans, the lesion histopathology, the detection and isolation of parasites from the lesions, and the analysis of the small subunit ribosomal RNA genes using the polymerase chain reaction. Despite a clear indication that the parasites belong to the genus Leishmania, no assignation to a known Leishmania species could be made using these or other less conserved genetic loci such as the non-transcribed spacer of the mini-exon repeat. As is the case in humans, some but not all animals harbouring lesions had antibodies to the isolated parasites or to several other Leishmania species. The isolated parasites displayed two well characterised Leishmania glycoconjugates, the lipophosphoglycan and proteophosphoglycan. They were infectious for mouse macrophages in vitro and established long-term infection at 33 °C but not at 37 °C. Our findings raise the possibility of transmission to humans, which may be unrecognised and suggest the possibility that imported species of Leishmania could become endemic in Australia.

Comparative morphology of the tapetum lucidum (among selected species).

The phenomenon of 'eye-shine' is seen in a variety of animal species, and is generally thought to be related to the presence of an intraocular reflecting structure, the tapetum lucidum. The tapetum lucidum is a biologic reflector system that is a common feature in the eyes of vertebrates. It normally functions to provide the light-sensitive retinal cells with a second opportunity for photon-photoreceptor stimulation, thereby enhancing visual sensitivity at low light levels. The tapetum lucidum is presented here according to a classification based on the location, as well as the composition, of this reflective layer. Finally, the physical and chemical properties, as well as the origins of the different tapeta lucida, are discussed and compared. The anatomic and biochemical aspects of the tapetum lucidum in various vertebrates are examined. Morphologic observations were made from paraffin and plastic embedded specimens. Specimens were treated with traditional stains and observed by light and transmission electron microscopy. Some species (primates, squirrels, birds, red kangaroo and pig) do not have this structure and they usually are diurnal animals. In vertebrates, the tapetum lucidum exhibits diverse structure, organization and composition. Therefore, the retinal tapetum (teleosts, crocodilians, marsupials, fruit bat), the choroidal guanine tapetum (elasmobranchs), the choroidal tapetum cellulosum (carnivores, rodents, cetacea), and the choroidal tapetum fibrosum (cow, sheep, goat, horse) are described. The tapetum lucidum represents a remarkable example of neural cell and tissue specialization as an adaptation to a dim light environment and, despite these differences, all tapetal variants act to increase retinal sensitivity by reflecting light back through the photoreceptor layer. These variations regarding both its location and structure, as well as the choice of reflective material, may represent selective visual adaptations associated with their feeding behavior, in response to the use of specific wavelengths and amount of reflectance required.

Daily changes in plant water content in western Queensland: implications for red kangaroo foraging times

We measured daily changes in plant water content to see if red kangaroos (Macropus rufus), in foraging at night, may gain more water than foraging by day. If so, it could be influential in dictating their time of foraging. The study was stimulated by work in Africa which showed that, by choosing to feed at night, gazelles are able to take advantage of increased plant water content. Daily changes in water content of 15 known forage plants were examined at Idalia National Park in semi-arid western Queensland in February, April and July 2002, during progressive drying of the country in an extraordinarily dry year. Of 29 day-night comparisons of plant water content, thirteen showed no difference, two (both of red spinach, Trianthema triquetra) showed a substantial increase at night, eight showed small but statistically significant increases, and six showed small but statistically significant decreases. We conclude that the choice of red kangaroos to forage at night is unlikely to be explained by nightly increases in plant water content.

Lifetime reproductive success in a population of female red kangaroos Macropus rufus in the sheep rangelands of western New South Wales: Environmental effects and population dynamics

Female reproductive success and the recruitment of offspring to the next generation are key components of animal population dynamics. With an annual commercial harvest of between 13 and 22% of the red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) population, it is increasingly important that these processes are understood. We used data on the reproductive success of 33 free-ranging female M. rufus on Fowlers Gap station in far western New South Wales to determine the expected lifetime reproductive success (LRS) of females within an unharvested population. We also designed a model to generate predictions about female LRS incorporating empirical relationships between a mother?s reproductive success and maternal age, environmental conditions and the sex and survivorship of a previous reproductive attempt. Results from observations on female LRS (calculated from annual weaning rates) and those generated by the model predict that female M. rufus on ?Fowlers Gap? wean, on average, 3.7 young in a lifetime (ranges 0 - 11 and 0 - 20, respectively); representing only 41% of their maximum reproductive potential. Manipulation of initial starting conditions allowed the effect of varying environmental conditions on female LRS to be explored. The condition of the environment when females commence breeding does not appear to significantly affect their overall lifetime reproductive output. However, the occurrence of drought does. Females experiencing two droughts in a lifetime did not live as long and weaned fewer offspring and grandoffspring (from their daughters) than those females experiencing only one drought in a lifetime. In addition to the adverse effect of drought on the reproductive success of female M. rufus in this study, we suggest that, given the relatively high and stable population densities of M. rufus on ?Fowlers Gap?, other mechanisms (acting primarily on juvenile survival) must exist which limit population growth.

Kangaroo-vehicle collisions in Australia's sheep rangelands, during and following drought periods.

The effects of roads on wildlife behaviour and ecological function are poorly known in arid Australia. The most obvious impact is roadkill from wildlife-vehicle collisions. Therefore we collected statistics on kangaroo-vehicle collisions, investigated the causal factors of these collisions, and related roadkill mortality to the population structure, size and distribution of four kangaroo species in two intensive six month studies during and following drought. The research was conducted along a 21.2 km sealed section of the Silver City Highway between Broken Hill and Tibooburra that passes through the University of New South Wales (NSW) Arid Zone Research Station at ‘Fowlers Gap’ in north-western NSW. The rate of roadkill was higher during drought (20.8 roadkills month-1) than non-drought (2.6 roadkills month-1). Affected species were red kangaroos (Macropus rufus), euros (Macropus robustus erubescens), western grey kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus) and eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus). During drought, M. fuliginosus and M. giganteus were killed in lower proportions than their proportion in the source population, otherwise species were killed in proportion to their density along the road. There were no sex biases but male M. r. erubescens were much more likely to be beside the road than females and thus were killed more often during drought. The majority of roadkills were young individuals around 2 years old. Curves and stockraces along the road significantly increased the likelihood of roadkills. Likewise the frequency of roadkills was a function of the kangaroo population density along the road, night time traffic volume, low rainfall and higher vegetation cover and greenness along the road relative to surrounding areas. We evaluate the relationships between these causal factors and kangaroovehicle collisions, and discuss the possible effects of these collisions on kangaroo population structure under drought and post-drought conditions.

The ecophysiology of survival in juvenile red kangaroos Macropus rufus: greater demands and higher costs.

Red kangaroos (Macropus rufus) are large (> 20 kg) herbivorous marsupials common to the arid and semi-arid regions of inland Australia. The population dynamics of M. rufus is tightly linked to environmental factors, which operate partly through the survival of juveniles. A crucial period is the young-at-foot (YAF) stage when juveniles have permanently left the mother?s pouch. YAF and weaned kangaroos have the highest drought-related mortalities of any cohort and show notable differences from adults in their basic physiology. YAF and weaned M. rufus, for example, had a resting metabolic rate (kJ kg-1 d-1) twice that of mature females and 1.5 times that expected for an adult marsupial of equivalent body mass (i.e., kJ kg-0.75 d-1). This greater energy turnover was largely explained by their metabolic demands for growth; juveniles required 70 - 95% of the digestible energy intake (kJ d-1) of mature, non-lactating females. Meeting these costs may not be a problem for juveniles when high-quality, low-fibre forage is available, but they were constrained when only hard-to-digest, high-fibre forage was available. YAF and weaned kangaroos, for example, were unable to sustain growth on forages of more than 40 ? 50% fibre, fibre levels characteristic of forages in arid regions during drought. Yet mature, non-lactating females were capable of maintaining body mass on similar forage. Additionally, juvenile M. rufus required relatively more water than adults for thermoregulation (by up to 2.5-fold), especially under hot conditions, and may need to drink more frequently than adults. Thus, juveniles appear constrained to remain close to water points, increasing their risk of predation and limiting their ability to find the high-quality forage needed for their growth and survival.

Diets and foraging behaviour of red and eastern grey kangaroos in arid shrub land: is feeding behaviour involved in the range expansion of the eastern grey kangaroo into the arid zone?

Eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) have expanded into arid areas usually the habitat of red kangaroos (Macropus rufus). Extra watering sites for domestic stock is the suggested reason. However, changes in vegetation also have occurred due to grazing from domestic stock. We investigated the foraging strategies of M. giganteus and M. rufus in arid rangeland to see if these are involved in the range changes. Foraging patterns were similar, with both species mostly foraging at night; total feeding times were the same. M. giganteus and M. rufus had differing diets, though there was considerable overlap of 81 - 87%. Both species were highly selective, having similar narrow dietary niche breaths. Differences in plant preferences occurred and though both species had a preference for grass that of M. giganteus was higher. A larger foregut in M. giganteus reinforces its focus on grass. M. rufus also selected dicot forbs and malvaceous sub-shrubs. Both kangaroos showed avoidance of abundant chenopod shrubs (saltbushes and bluebushes) and trees. It is likely that the changes to arid-zone vegetation, with a shift to grass and annual dicot forbs, has been important for the expansion of M. giganteus, possibly combined with the greater availability of water.

Fur versus feathers: the different roles of red kangaroo fur and emu feathers in thermoregulation in the Australian arid zone.

Fur or feathers provide protection against heat loads from solar radiation for birds and mammals. The red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) and the emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) are conspicuous in arid environments of Australia where there is potential for high solar loads. The diurnal D. novaehollandiae feeds in the open yet it has a dark coat with a high absorptivity (83%), which contrasts with that of M. rufus (61%), but M. rufus generally shelters in shade during the day. We examined the effect of coat characteristics on the heat load from solar radiation at skin level. Coat depth and density (thermal conductance or insulation) and the level of penetration of solar radiation into the coat were important determinants of solar heat load. For M. rufus less than 25% of incident radiation reached the body at low wind speeds and this diminished to below 15% at moderate wind speeds. In the modest shade M. rufus seeks on summer days, their heat load from solar radiation appears minimal. Colour differences among M. rufus did not affect thermal load. D. novaehollandiae on the other hand is exposed to the full incident solar load in the open but its plumage provides almost complete protection from solar radiation. Solar radiation is absorbed at the feather surface and the insulation provided by the deep coat prevents heat transmission to the skin.

Energy requirements of the red kangaroo (Macropus rufus): impacts of age, growth and body size in a large desert-dwelling herbivore.

Generally, young growing mammals have resting metabolic rates (RMRs) that are proportionally greater than those of adult animals. This is seen in the red kangaroo ( Macropus rufus), a large (>20 kg) herbivorous marsupial common to arid and semi-arid inland Australia. Juvenile red kangaroos have RMRs 1.5-1.6 times those expected for adult marsupials of an equivalent body mass. When fed high-quality chopped lucerne hay, young-at-foot (YAF) kangaroos, which have permanently left the mother's pouch but are still sucking, and recently weaned red kangaroos had digestible energy intakes of 641+/-27 kJ kg(-0.75) day(-1) and 677+/-26 kJ kg(-0.75) day(-1), respectively, significantly higher than the 385+/-37 kJ kg(-0.75) day(-1) ingested by mature, non-lactating females. However, YAF and weaned red kangaroos had maintenance energy requirements (MERs) that were not significantly higher than those of mature, non-lactating females, the values ranging between 384 kJ kg(-0.75) day(-1) and 390 kJ kg(-0.75) day(-1) digestible energy. Importantly, the MER of mature female red kangaroos was 84% of that previously reported for similarly sized, but still growing, male red kangaroos. Growth was the main factor affecting the proportionally higher energy requirements of the juvenile red kangaroos relative to non-reproductive mature females. On a good quality diet, juvenile red kangaroos from permanent pouch exit until shortly after weaning (ca. 220-400 days) had average growth rates of 55 g body mass day(-1). At this level of growth, juveniles had total daily digestible energy requirements (i.e. MER plus growth energy requirements) that were 1.7-1.8 times the MER of mature, non-reproductive females. Our data suggest that the proportionally higher RMR of juvenile red kangaroos is largely explained by the additional energy needed for growth. Energy contents of the tissue gained by the YAF and weaned red kangaroos during growth were estimated to be 5.3 kJ g(-1), within the range found for most young growing mammals.

Plastic casts and confocal laser scanning microscopy applied to the observation of enamel tubules in the red Kangaroo (Macropus rufus).

Scanning electron microscopy for plastic casts and confocal laser scanning microscopy for Villanueva bone-stained ground sections were used together to observe enamel tubules in red kangaroo molars. Although the tubular structures such as terminals, bends, expansions, splits, divergences and rejoinings in this species were within the variations of marsupial species, their morphological characteristics were demonstrated with extremely clear and persuasive images. Thus, the combined observations of plastic casts by scanning electron microscopy and Villanueva bone-stain sections by confocal laser scanning microscopy were found to be of value for the investigation of enamel tubules and tubular structures in other hard tissues.

Red kangaroos ( Macropus rufus ) receive an antipredator benefit from aggregation

For species that cannot seek cover to escape predators, aggregation becomes an important strategy to reduce predation risk. However, aggregation may not be entirely beneficial because aggregated animals may compete for access to limited resources and might even attract predators. Available evidence suggests that foraging competition influences time allocation in large-bodied macropodid marsupials, but previous studies have focused primarily on species in areas with protective cover. We studied red kangaroos, a species often found in open country without noticeable cover, to determine whether they experienced a net benefit by aggregation. Red kangaroos varied their time allocation as a function of group size and, importantly, more variation in time allocation to vigilance and foraging was explained by non-linear models than by linear models. This suggests red kangaroos directly translated the reduction of predation risk brought about by aggregation into greater time foraging and less time engaged in vigilance. We infer that red kangaroos received a net benefit by aggregation. Social species living in the open may be generally expected to rely on others to help manage predation risk.

Determining kangaroo age from lens protein content

Kangaroos can be aged by external morphometrics only when young (pre-weaning). Indices of molar progression are used to estimate the age of older kangaroos, but that method rests on a number of tenuous assumptions. This study explored the use of the eye lens as an alternative method for determining age. Body mass, foot size, arm length and wet mass of the lens were measured in 40 red (Macropus rufus), 476 western grey (M. fuliginosus) and 57 eastern grey (M. giganteus) kangaroos, ranging in age from 3 days to ~20 years. Total protein contents were determined for 556 lenses from these animals. Body mass and limb dimensions increase with age, at different rates for males and females, but the wet mass and protein content of lenses are independent of sex. Furthermore, the lens data approach their asymptote later than any of the other measurements, making them more reliable for aging older animals. The relationship between total protein contents (in milligrams) and age (in years estimated from molar index) can be described with a single equation for all three species over the whole age range from newborn to adult.

Kangaroo harvesters: fertilising the rangelands

Offcuts from harvested red kangaroo (Macropus rufus), comprising the head, stomach, entrails, legs and joey (females only) and sometimes the tail remain near the point of harvest. Offcut weights of males averaged 11.46 kg and comprised 26% of the total body mass, whilst average female offcuts weighed 6.69 kg and comprised 31% of total body mass. There was a strong correlation between carcass and offcut mass for both sexes. Offcuts from 27 kangaroos were randomly exposed to three different assemblages of vertebrate scavengers. Soil nitrogen and organic carbon concentrations increased significantly following the addition of offcuts but there was no significant change in soil potassium concentrations or pH. Decomposition and dispersal of offcuts was enhanced by accessibility to different scavenging guilds. The contribution of the kangaroo industry to soil nutrient retention and cycling contrasts with the depletion of nutrients through the export of domestic livestock from the Australian rangelands.

The Mygoora Local Fauna: a late Quaternary vertebrate assemblage from central Australia

The Mygoora Local Fauna (new name) from Mygoora Lake, central Australia (southern Northern Territory), consists of the fossilised remains of 12 vertebrate species referrable to modern taxa. The assemblage includes eight marsupials (Bellongia lesuew; Dasycercus cristicauda, Dasyurus geo.ffroii, Lagorchestes hirsutus, Lasiorhinus cf. latifrons, Macropus rufus, Macrotis lagotis, and Sarcophilus harrisii), two rodents (Notomys alexis and Ralltts villosissimus), and two reptiles (Varanus sp. and a pythonid, ?Bothrochilus sp.). Lasiorhinus sp. (hairy-nosed wombat) is a first record of the genus in the Northern Territory, while Sarcophilus harrisii (Tasmanian devil) is a first record for central Australia, both records representing extensions of prehistoric ranges for these species. Four species (Bettongia Iesueur, Dasyurus geo.ffroii, Lagorchestes ltirsutus and Macro/us lagotis) became regionally extinct in historical times. The fauna is dominated by fossorial species, or species known to occupy existing burrows, that are typical of the Australian arid biogeographic zone. Articulated skeletal remains were preserved in burrows dug into stabilised aeolian sand, with subsequent deflation resulting in localised concentrations of durable fragments at the present land surface. An optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) date of the host aeolian sand provides a maximum age of between 12.1 +/-0.5 and 9.3+/-0.6 ka for the assemblage. A minimum age could not be determined, but biochronological data suggest that the fauna is possibly of latest Pleistocene or early Holocene age.

Effects of p-chloromercuribenzene sulfonate on water transport across the marsupial erythrocyte membrane.

The effects of exposure of red blood cells (RBC) of three species of marsupial to a mercury-containing sulfhydryl-modifying reagent, p-chloromercuribenzene sulfonate (PCMBS), on the water diffusional permeability ( P (d)) of their membranes were monitored by using an Mn(2+)-doping (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technique at 400 MHz. For koala ( Phascolarctos cinereus), RBC the maximal inhibition was reached at 37 degrees C in 60 min with 1 mmol.l(-1) PCMBS or in 15-30 min with 2 mmol. l(-1) PCMBS. In contrast, in the case of red kangaroo ( Macropus rufus) or swamp wallaby ( Wallabia bicolor) RBC, maximal inhibition required an incubation of 90 min at 37 degrees C with 2 mmol.l(-1) PCMBS. For the RBC of all three species the value of maximal inhibition was very high, being 50-70% when measured at 25 degrees C, 60-80% at 30 degrees C and 60-70% at 37 degrees C. The lowest values of P (d) appeared to be around 2 x 10(-3)-3 x 10(-3) cm.s(-1) in the temperature range of 25-37 degrees C. The mean value of the activation energy of water diffusion ( E (a,d)) was approximately 20-25 kJ.mol(-1) for control and approximately 40 kJ.mol(-1) for PCMBS-inhibited RBCs. These results show that marsupial RBC have a basal permeability to water similar to that previously reported for human RBC, but a higher value of the PCMBS-inhibitable water permeability. This indicates that the higher water permeability of marsupial RBC compared with human RBC is associated with a higher fraction of protein-mediated water permeability.

Effect of adrenergic antagonists during phenylephrine stimulation of the mandibular gland of red kangaroos, Macropus rufus.

Intracarotid infusions of l-phenylephrine at 1.0 nmol.kg(-1).min(-1) or(.)10 nmol.kg(-1).min(-1) were accompanied by increases in salivary protein, urea, magnesium and bicarbonate, and by decreases in osmolality, hydrogen ion activity, sodium, potassium and chloride relative to cholinergically stimulated saliva. Intravenous infusions of phenylephrine at the same dose rates had much less effect on salivary composition with the differences between the routes of administration being greatest for the higher dose rate. Propranolol administered with phenylephrine via the carotid artery, at an antagonist:agonist ratio of 10:1, was much more effective in blocking the phenylephrine-induced changes in salivary composition than equimolar infusion of phentolamine with phenylephrine. Simultaneous intracarotid infusions of either a beta(1)-antagonist (CGP20712A) or a beta(2)-antagonist (ICI118551) with phenylephrine showed that ICI118551 was more potent than CGP20712A at preventing the changes in salivary composition associated with phenylephrine administration. It was concluded that alpha(1)-adrenoreceptors were not present in functionally significant numbers in the gland and that the effect of phenylephrine on the kangaroo mandibular was mediated by beta-adrenoreceptors predominantly of the beta(2)-subtype. As the phenylephrine dose rates in the kangaroos were comparable with those used to determine alpha-adrenergic responses of eutherian salivary glands and as both propranolol and phentolamine appeared to have minor beta-sympathomimetic activity, at least one subtype of beta-adrenoreceptors in macropods may not be identical to its eutherian counterpart.

Inter‐specific variation in Macropus crania: form, function and phylogeny

AbstractMorphological variation was studied in the crania of seven species of kangaroos and wallabies (Macropus). How function and phylogeny interact to influence cranial form amongst adults of diverse species was considered. Thirty‐six, three‐dimensional landmarks were acquired on each of 65 adult Macropus specimens from Western Australia. The different species occupy a wide range of habitats and latitudes and there are well‐known differences in diet among the species. Size and shape variability was examined using the methods of geometric morphometrics. Aspects of inter‐specific variation explained by principal components were visualized and examined for correlations with size, latitude, and diet. The first principal component correlates strongly with inter‐specific differences in latitude and it primarily contrasts species on the basis of the relative length of the snout anterior to the molar teeth, this being greater in species that live in cooler climates. Species scores on the second principal component correlate strongly with centroid size such that smaller crania have more flexed muzzles. Principal component three separates the short grass‐eating, red kangaroo M. rufus, from all other species (most of which eat tough herbage from trees and shrubs). This principal component represents differences in the masticatory apparatus. Variation on the fourth principal component also seems to be functionally interpretable in terms of further differences in the masticatory apparatus of M. agilis. The relationship between phylogeny and cranial form was investigated by comparing a phenogram based on the shape distances between taxa with a consensus phylogeny drawn from the literature on Macropus genetics, ecology and morphology. The phenogram shows considerable similarity to current taxonomic views, but, our results also indicate differences that are related to function. Thus, this study serves to unravel the interaction of functional and phylogenetic influences on cranial form amongst Macropus species and raises further issues relating to ontogeny and phylogeny.

Salivary secretion during selective beta-adrenoreceptor stimulation and blockade in the parotid gland of red kangaroos, Macropus rufus.

Intracarotid infusions of noradrenaline (0.3 nmol.kg(-1) x min(-1)) stimulated salivary fluid secretion and caused increases in salivary concentrations of protein, potassium. magnesium. chloride and phosphate, and decreases in bicarbonate. These effects of intracarotid noradrenaline were not reduced by simultaneous intracarotid infusion of phentolamine (3.0 nmol.kg(-1) x min(-1)) but were significantly greater than the responses accompanying intravenous noradrenaline infusion. Concomitant administration of the beta-antagonist, CGP20712A, were much more effective in blocking the noradrenaline-induced changes in salivary composition than equimolar infusions of the beta2-antagonist, ICI118551, thereby confirming the presence of beta1-adrenoreceptors. Intracarotid infusion of salbutamol at 0.6 nmol x kg(-1) x min(-1) and 6.0 nmol x kg(-1) x min(-1) caused increasing but qualitatively similar changes in salivary composition to intracarotid noradrenaline but was less effective than noradrenaline in augmenting salivary protein release. Equimolar intravenous infusions of salbutamol and noradrenaline were equally potent in altering salivary electrolyte concentrations but salbutamol by this route had less effect on protein release and fluid secretion. Concurrent intravenous and intracarotid infusions of beta1-(CGP) and beta2-(ICI) antagonists with intracarotid salbutamol showed that the beta2-antagonist was more potent than the beta1-antagonist by the intracarotid route thereby demonstrating the presence of glandular beta2-receptors and eliminating the possibility that the response to salbutamol was due totally by reflex increases in general sympathetic tone triggered by lowered blood pressure. It was concluded that the kangaroo parotid has functional beta1- and beta2-adrenoreceptor subtypes in endpieces whereas the data provide little support for either adrenoreceptor subtype being present in the excurrent duct system.

Population trends in European rabbits and other wildlife of central Australia in the wake of rabbit haemorrhagic disease

Before the establishment of rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) in central Australia in May 1996, a program was instituted to monitor its impacts at six localities broadly distributed across the region. At these sites, population trends in rabbits and other wildlife were studied over a 2.5-year period. Rabbit populations declined by approximately 85% following establishment of RHD at the sites, and had not recovered 22 months later. More varanid lizards were detected on our survey plots 12–22 months after RHD than during the preceding period. Although numbers of dingoes and wedge-tailed eagles varied during the study, significant population reductions were not detected in either species in the wake of RHD. Significant population changes were not detected in red foxes, feral cats, red kangaroos, small mammals, or other raptor species.

Ventral fixation of cervical vertebral fractures in two red kangaroos using screws and polymethylmethacrylate

SummaryFractures of the cervical vertebrae in two tetraparetic juvenile red kangaroos were stabilized using a modified ventral screws and polymethylmethacrylate technique. One kangaroo developed terminal ventilatory complications during anaesthesia. The second recovered normal mobility.