Fruit Red Color Research Articles

Association of allele variants of gene Rf with red fruit color of apple cultivars of ukrainian breeding

Aim. To estimate the possibilities of using the promising apple cultivars, created by the Institute of Horticul- ture (IH) NAAS, in the breeding programs according to the availability of valuable allele variants of gene Rf, related to red color of apple fruit. Methods. Polymerase chain reaction, electrophoresis in agarose gel, the evaluation of phenotype manifestation of the color trait of apple skin according to the grading system. Results. 17 genotypes of apple cultivars of different genetic origin, including 12 cultivars, breeded by IH NAAS, were identifi ed by allele variants of gene Rf. The comparison was made between the genetic analysis results and visual observations of the phenotype manifestation of fruit skin color of different apple cultivars. Conclusions. Apple cultivars Amulet, Perlyna Kyeva and Edera, which are homozygous carriers of dominant alleles А 1 and А 2 of gene Rf are recommended as basic forms in selection programs. It was demonstrated that exact prediction of apple skin color was possible only in case of the available homozygous genotype by both alleles of gene Rf.

Evaluation of Mineral Profile, Texture, Sensory and Structural Characteristics of Old Pepper Landraces

Old traditional Serbian pepper landraces (Nizača, Lokošnička and Turšijara), grown in South Serbia and produced by seed sowing or transplanting, were evaluated in this study. Besides the basic morphological properties and composition, the features characterizing fruit color and pericarp anatomy were determined in order to analyze and systematize the traits relevant from the aspect of traditional end use of examined landraces. Landraces Lokošnička and Nizača, characterized with higher force needed to puncture fruit skin, larger number of mesocarp layers, thicker endocarp and thicker collenchyma tissue, followed with higher total soluble solids content are more suitable for intended traditional use than Turšijara. Production from transplants should be favored in order to obtain more uniform, darker red fruit color, ASTA value, higher TSS content as well as higher yields. There are genetic differences of the some quality differences between the cultivars. Lokošnička has higher mesocarp layers, thicker endocarp and collenchyma tissue. Practical Applications Pepper fruits dried in traditional way slowly in a draught are used in preparation of local ethno-gastronomic specialities, with special position in local customs related to dietary habits during the spring Orthodox fasting period. Intact fruit skin is also the prerequisite for successful utilization in traditional culinary specialties-stuffed dry pepper fruits previously soaked in water that remain whole during cooking and baking. Structure and texture of pepper fruit skin and pericarp can consequently be considered as one of the key aspects of technological quality of pepper based on which landraces were selected for described traditional preservation technique. The research for answers to this technological challenge was the motivation of this study, which evaluated the impact of different predrying process (type of landraces, production methods) on qualities of pepper fruit. The data shown would provide scientific rationales for obtaining high-quality whole fruit pepper as material for stuffing.

Phylogenomics Reveals Three Sources of Adaptive Variation during a Rapid Radiation.

Speciation events often occur in rapid bursts of diversification, but the ecological and genetic factors that promote these radiations are still much debated. Using whole transcriptomes from all 13 species in the ecologically and reproductively diverse wild tomato clade (Solanum sect. Lycopersicon), we infer the species phylogeny and patterns of genetic diversity in this group. Despite widespread phylogenetic discordance due to the sorting of ancestral variation, we date the origin of this radiation to approximately 2.5 million years ago and find evidence for at least three sources of adaptive genetic variation that fuel diversification. First, we detect introgression both historically between early-branching lineages and recently between individual populations, at specific loci whose functions indicate likely adaptive benefits. Second, we find evidence of lineage-specific de novo evolution for many genes, including loci involved in the production of red fruit color. Finally, using a “PhyloGWAS” approach, we detect environment-specific sorting of ancestral variation among populations that come from different species but share common environmental conditions. Estimated across the whole clade, small but substantial and approximately equal fractions of the euchromatic portion of the genome are inferred to contribute to each of these three sources of adaptive genetic variation. These results indicate that multiple genetic sources can promote rapid diversification and speciation in response to new ecological opportunity, in agreement with our emerging phylogenomic understanding of the complexity of both ancient and recent species radiations.

Effect of highly processed calcined kaolin residues on apple productivity and quality

Calcined kaolin-based particle films (PKPF) are effective in reducing insect, heat, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and ultraviolet radiation (UV) stress in plants due to the reflective nature of the heat-treated particles. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of PKFP treatments applied at moderate (3%) and high rates (12% w/v) on apple physiology, yield and quality and the interaction with ambient ozone levels for a 6 year period. Fruit mass was increased by applications of PKPF at 3% and 12% in 4 of 6 years in non-irrigated treatments and in 2 of 6 years in irrigated treatments. Red fruit color was increased (lower hue angle) over the control in 5 of 6 years and in 2 of 5 years the 12% PKPF had improved red color over both the 0% and 3% PKPF non-irrigated treatments. PAR interception over 6 years, adjusted for LAI, was greatest for the control, least for the 12% PKPF, and 3% PKPF was intermediate. Reduced PAR interception below the canopy was likely due to greater PAR reflection within the canopy. Whole canopy temperature was significantly higher for the control (26°C) and lower for the 3% and 12% PKPF treatments (24°C). Fruit mass increased in the PKPF treatments, relative to the irrigated control treatment (%), with increasing maximum ozone levels during May. In laboratory studies, ozone degradation was greatest for alfalfa, least for calcined kaolin and the addition of alfalfa to calcined kaolin increased degradation proportionately. The present study confirms that calcined kaolin is an effective catalyst for ozone degradation and organic materials, such as alfalfa, are even more effective, due to the direct reaction with carbon molecules. Whole canopy gas exchange measurements (1000–1600HR) over a 10 day period in 2011 indicated that the 2.7% PKPF+0.3% alfalfa dust consistently had higher photosynthesis, 0.3% alfalfa was intermediate, while the control and 3% PKPF had the lowest photosynthesis rate. Whole canopy ozone degradation indicated that the 2.7% PKPF+0.3% alfalfa dust consistently had the greatest ozone degradation, 3% PKPF and 0.3% alfalfa were intermediate and the untreated control had the least ozone degradation. There is evidence that the 0.3% alfalfa stimulated a small amount of microbial growth on the leaf surface while the 2.7% PKPF+0.3% alfalfa stimulated a much greater amount of microbial growth. This synergistic effect may be due to the increased surface area in the particle film providing habitat for microbial populations and the reflection of UV by the particles that can be deleterious to microbial growth within that habitat. Data support the concept that chronic ozone damage is moderated to a significant degree by the use of surface treatments that catalyze ozone degradation in a particle film. The use of PKPF may be one tool to mitigate not only increased ozone stress but also heat stress from increased growing season temperatures in the future.

The effect of pollen donor on fruit weight, seed weight and red colour development in Actinidia chinensis ‘Hort22D’

ABSTRACTFlowers of the red-fleshed female kiwifruit selection ‘Hort22D’ (diploid Actinidia chinensis) were hand pollinated with pollen from each of three males: ‘Bruce’ (diploid A. chinensis), M248 (tetraploid A. chinensis) and ‘Chieftain’ (hexaploid A. deliciosa). The resulting fruit were evaluated at four dates through the growing season and after storage. By the final harvest, fruit from pollination by ‘Bruce’ had a 47% higher total anthocyanin concentration and weighed 38% more than fruit from pollination by ‘Chieftain’, but there was no association between anthocyanin concentration and fruit weight. Total and individual seed weights were also significantly higher following ‘Bruce’ pollination. Fruit from pollination by M248 were intermediate for these traits. No significant differences were found among pollen treatments in dry matter content or carbohydrate concentrations. These results confirm that the choice of pollen donor can have significant effects on fruit weight, seed weight and total anthocyanin concentration in kiwifruit.

POLYPHENOLS, ASCORBIC ACID AND CAROTENOIDS CONTENTS AND ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES IN FRUITS OF CAPSICUM CHINENSE JACQ.

Capsicum chinense Jacq. is the rich source of phytochemical substances, such as vitamin C, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and occupies a significant place in the cooking of many peoples. The pigment composition, the amount of carotenoids, ascorbic acid and their contribution to the formation of antioxidant properties were studied. The total content of carotenoids and red/yellow pigments varied greatly among the accessions of C. chinense. The highest content of carotenoids 0.581 mg/g was observed in the varieties ‘Ognennaya Deva’ with the red fruit color in the phase of biological ripeness, where red pigments accumulated 56% more than in yellow ones. Fruits of accessions ‘Kolokolchik’ only accumulated yellow pigments, 0.318 mg/g. Presence of significant amount, 2.03 times as much red pigments as yellow ones in the variety ‘Trinidad Scorpion Chocolate’, with protein complex could cause the formation of a brown fruit color. Another tendency was observed in ‘Trinidad Dglahou’. The yellow pigment is 1.5 times as much amount as red, as estimated 0.119 mg/g of yellow and 0.077 mg/g of red pigment. The ascorbic acid content did not depend on the fruit color. Fruits of the ‘Ognennaya Deva’ accumulated the highest amount of ascorbic acid, 301 mg%. The maximum total antioxidant content, was detected in the variety ‘Ognennaya Deva’ 2.65 (TAC, mg.eq. GA/g). Analysis of the dependence of the content of thermo stable antioxidants to the total ones showed the contribution of the unstable antioxidants to thermal effects (particularly ascorbic acid) on the level of 16%, on average. A comparative assessment of the pungency level and quantitative capsaicin content in the fruit was carried out by organoleptic, spectrophotometric and HPLC methods. The intervals of observed concentrations of capsaicin were 1.0-7.5 mg/g of dry weight (HPLC), the level of pungency on the Scoville scale was 17440-153120 SHU. There was a direct correlation between the organoleptic assessment of the pepper fruit pungency and capsaicin content studied by spectrophotometry and HPLC methods.

Leaves are important to obtain consistent red flesh pigmentation in Actinidia chinensis fruit

Red-fleshed Actinidia chinensis fruit are new to the market and consumers’ acceptance of these kiwifruit is subject to the development of a consistent red flesh pigmentation. We hypothesised that differences in the availability of source carbohydrate have an effect on the variation in fruit red colour within an orchard. In a block-red-fleshed (red colour in the inner and outer pericarp) genotype, effects of shoot types, parent cane types, vine rootstock, fruit position on the shoot, flowering time and light exposure on fruit flesh colour were evaluated. Vine vigour had a consistent effect on the outer pericarp colour of fruit. Fruit from the vines on the more vigorous rootstock (A. deliciosa ‘Bruno’ seedling) had the most intense and least variable outer pericarp red colour. In addition, fruit from long shoots on small diameter canes (10–15mm) were also the most intensely pigmented, whilst fruit position on the shoot, flowering time and fruit light exposure did not affect fruit flesh red colour. The vigour of vines due to rootstock, cane and shoot size also affected fruit growth and dry matter accumulation. These results suggest that, similarly to fruit growth (i.e. fresh weight and dry matter), vine vigour, carbohydrate availability and competition for resources between fruit and vegetative shoot growth have a putative role in red colour development in kiwifruit flesh. These finding can be used to develop optimised growing systems for new red-fleshed kiwifruit cultivars that minimise excessive shoot vigour to enhance red pigmentation of fruit flesh.

Varietal characterization of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) based on morphological descriptions

A total of 36 cultivars of okra [Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench] were grouped for 31 morphological characters (17 visual and 14 quantitative) adopted as per DUS guidelines. All the cultivars showed similar expression for each characters over the four consecutive year (kharif, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013) depicting the stability of cultivars. None of the attributes showed intra-varietal variations. Three cultivars, i.e. Azad Bhindi 3, Kashi Lalima and VROR 159 showed red stem colour while others have green stem colour. No. 315 showed first flower at less than 5 nodes while SB 2, Arka Abhay, Kashi Vibhuti, Kashi Pragati, Kashi Lila and Perkins Long Green exhibited first flower at 5-8 nodes, whereas other cultivars expressed first flower appeared at more than 8 nodes. Cultivars Pusa A-4, Kashi Leela and Punjab Padmini were early in flowering (<35 days) while SB 2, Arka Anamika, Punjab 8, Kashi Pragati, HRB 55, Varsha Uphar, Hisar Naveen and Arka Abhay were medium (35-45 days), whereas other cultivars were late (>45 days) in flowering. Purple leaf vein colour was observed in 7 cultivars, viz. Susthira, Arka Anamika, Azad Bhindi 3, Kashi Lalima, Punjab Padmini, No. 315 and Perkins Long Green and the other cultivars depicted green leaf vein colour. Inside purple base colour of petal was exhibited in eight cultivars, viz. SB 2, No. 136, Susthira, Arka Anamika, Azad Bhindi 2, HRB 55, Azad Bhindi 1 and Punjab 7 while the other cultivars showed both side purple base colour on both side of petal. Light green fruit colour was observed in 8 cultivars, viz. GO 2, GJO 3, Azad Bhindi 2, Dl-87-5, Arka Abhay, VRO-3, Pusa Sawani and BO 2, whereas Azad Bhindi 3 and Kashi Lalima had light red fruit colour and rest of cultivars showed green fruit colour. Length of fruit (cm) at marketable stage (four days after anthesis) varied from small to long in the cultivars studied. Only one cultivar SB-2 have small fruit length while Susthira, Varsha Uphar, Kashi Vibhuti, Dl-87-5 and No.136 showed long fruit length. Rest cultivars showed medium fruit length. Only three cultivars, viz. Susthira, No. 315, and Kashi Vibhuti exhibited short plant height (<90cm). Majority of the cultivars were classified under medium (90-120cm) and tall (>120cm) plant height group.

Foliar Application of Phosphorus Improves Apple Fruit Color During Ripening

The red color of skin is a much desired property in apple production. For better red fruit coloration the applications of foliar fertilizers on the basis of calcium and phosphorus are used. In the present study ‘Braeburn’ apple trees were sprayed twice with Phostrade Ca (phosphorus), 5 and 3 weeks before harvest. In 7-days intervals fruit color, the content of flavonoids and enzyme activity involved in the synthesis of anthocyanins have been monitored. Foliar application of Phostrade Ca caused a more intense red skin color of apples and higher anthocyanin content. Their level increased during ripening, in treated apples the content of total anthocyanins was 20-fold higher at harvest while in control apples only 9-fold higher compared to the initial values. Cyanidin 3-galactoside was the most abundant anthocyanin (80 to 86% of total anthocyanins), followed by cyanidin 3-arabinoside, cyanidin 3-glucoside, cyanidin 3-xyloside and cyanidin 7-arabinoside. Prostrade Ca increased the levels of all quercetin glycosides, with the exception of quercetin 3-rhamnoside. No significant influence of Phostrade Ca on the content of hydroxycinnamic acids, dihydrochalcones, flavanols and total phenolics has been monitored. The activity of FHT and DFR increased during ripening but Phostrade Ca influenced only higher activity of DFR.

Biogeography and evolutionary diversification in one of the most widely distributed and species rich genera of the Pacific.

The historical biogeography of many lineages-of both terrestrial and marine ocean habitats-remains poorly investigated even though remote ocean habitat covers approximately 66% of the Earth's surface. One such lineage with poorly understood biogeographic affinities across vast ocean habitat is the genus Coprosma (Rubiaceae) with numerous species, and a widespread and disjunct distribution among the far-flung insular localities of multiple Pacific Islands. Here, the first taxonomically robust phylogeny for Coprosma s.s. was dated using molecular clock techniques and indicated Coprosma s.s. diverged from its sister genus Nertera likely during or shortly after the Oligocene Marine Transgression of New Zealand. Diversification of the five major clades identified occurred in New Zealand during the Miocene, which was then followed by multiple independent dispersals from New Zealand to various localities in many directions. The pattern of Coprosma's distribution in the Pacific appears stochastic both temporally and spatially, but evolution of an orange to red fruit colour prior to nearly all inferred dispersals hints at endozoochory by birds. The number of inferred long-distance dispersals of Coprosma s.s. (>30), and number of repeated dispersals to the same insular locality from unrelated Coprosma s.s. sublineages (>8) is perhaps the most currently known for a remote Pacific-centred genus investigated to date. A New Zealand origin for a Pacific-wide dispersal of taxa is not novel, but the manner in which the temporal and spatial distribution for Coprosma s.s. was achieved contributes to a novel understanding of the historical biogeography of widespread Pacific genera that have origins in the Southern Hemisphere.

The relationship between red fruit colour formation and key genes of capsanthin biosynthesis pathway in Capsicum annuum

Pepper (Capsicum annum L.) fruit colours vary from green, ivory, or yellow at the juvenile stage to red, orange, and yellow at the mature stage. Carotenoid accumulation causes fruit colour formation in ripe Capsicum fruits, and capsanthin is a main carotenoid in ripe red pepper fruits. In this study, pepper cultivars with red, yellow, and orange fruits were employed and four key genes named phytoene synthase (Psy), lycopene-β-cyclase (Lcyb), β-carotene hydroxylase (Crtz), and capsanthin/capsorubin synthase (Ccs) in the capsanthin biosynthetic pathway were analyzed. Results show that a clear expression of the Ccs gene in cv. CK7 (yellow) was detected, but the expressions of the Psy and Lcyb genes were low comparing with the other tested cultivars. In addition, the expression of the Ccs gene was not observed in cv. R37-1 (orange). Furthermore, though the four key genes (Psy, Lcyb, Crtz, and Ccs) were detected in red cultivar R15, the expressions of them were low. Sequence analysis further indicated that the Ccs genes in cv. CK7 and cv. R37-1 had a high sequence identity (97.36 %). Interestingly, amino acid sequences coded by the Ccs genes from cv. CK7, cv. R37-1, and cv. R15 were the same. The above results suggest that the genes Psy, Lcyb, Crtz, and Ccs were required for capsanthin synthesis in pepper, and their varied expression patterns resulted in the variety of pepper fruit colours.

Vegetative Growth, Productivity, and Fruit Quality in Tall Spindle of ‘Fuji’/M.9 Apple Trees

Well-feathered (over 10 feathers) 'Fuji'/M.9 apple trees were planted at and trained to slender spindle with 2.5 m height or to tall spindle with 3.5 m height, and the vegetative growth, productivity, and fruit quality of two training systems were compared for 8 years. The canopy volume of the tall spindle trees surpassed that of the slender spindle trees 4 years after planting and was 25% larger than that of the slender spindle trees 5 years after planting. The accumulated yield over 8 years for the tall spindle system was 14% higher than that of the slender spindle system. Alternate bearing and incidence of marssonina blotch were observed in both treatments after 5 years of planting. There was often vegetative imbalance in the trees however, the degree of yield loss and vegetative imbalance of the tall spindle trees was lower than those of the slender spindle trees. Soluble solid content and fruit red color of the tall spindle trees were higher than that of the slender spindle trees in 5 year after planting, resulting from increased light penetration in the canopy due to even distribution of lateral branches and from fruit bearing in different height locations of the trees. In conclusion, increasing the tree height to about 3.5 m using slender spindle 'Fuji'/M.9 apple trees planted with over 333 trees per 10a led to better light penetration, yield and fruit quality compared to a conventional wide training system with the slender spindle.

Optimum Crop Load in Different Planting Densities of Adult ‘Fuji’/M.9 Apple Tree for Preventing Biennial Bearing and Stabilizing Tree Vigor

본 시험은 성목기 '후지'/M.9 사과나무의 재식밀도별 적정 착과수를 조사하고자 영양생장, 생산량, 과실품질 및 이듬해 개화율을 3년(재식 7-9년차) 동안 조사하였다. 시험재료는 <TEX>$3.5{\times}1.5m$</TEX>(190주/10a), <TEX>$3.5{\times}1.2m$</TEX>(238주/10a), <TEX>$3.2{\times}1.2m$</TEX>(260주/10a)로 심어 세장방추형을 목표수형으로 관리하고 있는 '후지'/M.9 사과나무이었다. 목표 착과수 범위는 주당 55-64과, 65-74과, 75-84과, 85-94과, 95-104과의 5수준이었다. TCA 증가, 총 신초장, 이듬해 개화율, 주당 생산량 및 수량 효율은 재식밀도가 낮을수록 증가하는 경향이 있었고, 과중과 가용성고형물 함량은 목표 착과수준이 낮을수록 증가하는 경향이 있었다. 착색은 신초생장이 감소할수록 증가하는 경향이 있었다. 해거리는 238주과 260주 재식구의 주당 과실수가 각각 85-94과, 75-84과 이상이 되면 발생하였다. 그러나 190주 재식구는 주당 95-104과 정도 되어도 해거리가 발생하지 않았다. 누적 생산량은 재식밀도 및 목표 착과수준이 높을수록 많아지는 경향이 있었으나, 해거리가 발생한 착과구들 간의 차이는 없었다. 결론적으로 190주로 재식된 '후지'/M.9 사과나무의 성목기 적정 결실량은 95-104개, 238주 재식구는 75-84개, 260주 재식구는 65-74개 범위가 적당할 것이라고 판단되었다. This study was conducted in three years (7-9 years after planting) to investigate vegetative growth, yield, fruit quality, and return bloom for optimum crop load based on different planting densities of adult 'Fuji'/M.9 apple trees. As plant materials, 'Fuji'/M.9 apple trees planted at <TEX>$3.5{\times}1.5m$</TEX> (190 trees per 10 a), <TEX>$3.5{\times}1.2m$</TEX> (238 trees per 10 a), and <TEX>$3.2{\times}1.2m$</TEX> (260 trees per 10 a) spacing and trained as slender spindles were used. The crop load was assigned to five different object ranges as follows: 55-64, 65-74, 75-84, 85-94, and 95-104 fruit per tree. TCA increment, total shoot growth, return bloom, yield per tree, and yield efficiency tended to increase as planting density decreased, and fruit weight and soluble solid content tended to increase as the object range of crop load decreased. Fruit red color tended to increase as shoot growth decreased. For apple trees planted with 238 trees and 260 trees per 10a, biennial bearing occurred when the crop load was over 85-94 and 75-84 fruits, respectively. However, biennial bearing did not occur when the crop load was 95-104 fruits in apple trees planted with 190 trees per 10a. Accumulated yield tended to increase as planting density and crop load increased, but that of biennial bearing did not show such a difference. Based on our results, optimum crop load recommendations are to set 95-104 fruits per tree in 'Fuji'/M.9 mature apple trees planted at 190 trees per 10a, 75-84 fruits per tree at 238 trees per 10a, and 65-74 fruits per tree at 260 trees per 10a.

Photosynthesis, Shoot Growth and Fruit Quality in ‘Fuji’/M.9 Mature Apple Trees in Response to Prohexadione-calcium Treatments

본 시험은 prohexadione-calcium(Pro-Ca) 살포가 성목기 '후지'/M.9 사과나무의 신초생장 및 과실품질에 미치는 영향을 구명하고자 실시하였다. Pro-Ca은 <TEX>$100-400mg{\cdot}L^{-1}$</TEX> 농도로 정단신초 길이가 5-10cm 정도 생장한 낙화기에 1회 수관전체 살포하거나 혹은 100, 125, <TEX>$150mg{\cdot}L^{-1}$</TEX> 농도로 낙화기와 낙화 후 4-8주 경에 2회 살포하였다. 일반적으로 Pro-Ca 처리는 평균 신초장을 감소시켰으며, 그 정도는 처리농도에 비례하였다. 무처리에 비해 Pro-Ca <TEX>$400mg{\cdot}L^{-1}$</TEX> 처리는 평균 신초장을 15-22% 정도 감소시켰으나, Pro-Ca <TEX>$200mg</TEX><TEX>{\cdot}L^{-1}$</TEX> 처리와는 차이가 없었다. 신초의 2차 생장발생률은 Pro-Ca 처리구가 무처리보다 높았다. 무처리에 비해 Pro-Ca 처리는 광합성속도를 5-10% 정도 향상시켰고, 또한 가용성 고형물 함량과 착색을 증진시켰다. 그러나 <TEX>$400mg{\cdot}L^{-1}$</TEX> 처리는 과중을 유의하게 감소시켰는데, 이는 Pro-Ca <TEX>$400mg{\cdot}L^{-1}$</TEX> 처리구의 신초 2차 발생률이 무처리 및 Pro-Ca <TEX>$200mg{\cdot}L^{-1}$</TEX> 처리구 보다 높았기 때문이었다. This study was conducted to elucidate the influence of prohexadione-calcium (Pro-Ca) application on shoot growth and fruit quality in 'Fuji'/M.9 mature apple trees. Pro-Ca was applied at concentrations ranging from 100 to <TEX>$400mg{\cdot}L^{-1}$</TEX> one time at petal fall (PF; 5-10 cm terminal shoot growth) to the whole canopy of the tree, or at 100, 125, <TEX>$150mg{\cdot}L^{-1}$</TEX> concentrations two times, at PF and then 4-8 weeks after PF. Pro-Ca treatment generally reduced mean shoot growth, with its effect being proportional to the application rate. Pro-Ca at <TEX>$400mg{\cdot}L^{-1}$</TEX> significantly reduced the shoot growth by 15-22% compared to the control, while its effect was not significantly different from Pro-Ca <TEX>$200mg{\cdot}L^{-1}$</TEX>. Pro-Ca treatments induced higher occurrence of secondary growth compared to the control. Pro-Ca treatment increased the photosynthetic rate by 5-10% relative to the control, and also increased soluble solid concentration and fruit red color. However, fruit weight was significantly reduced by <TEX>$400mg{\cdot}L^{-1}$</TEX> Pro-Ca, which was attributable to the greater secondary growth caused Pro-Ca <TEX>$400mg{\cdot}L^{-1}$</TEX> treatment compared to the control and Pro-Ca <TEX>$200mg{\cdot}L^{-1}$</TEX> treatment.

Transient silencing of CHALCONE SYNTHASE during fruit ripening modifies tomato epidermal cells and cuticle properties.

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fruit ripening is accompanied by an increase in CHALCONE SYNTHASE (CHS) activity and flavonoid biosynthesis. Flavonoids accumulate in the cuticle, giving its characteristic orange color that contributes to the eventual red color of the ripe fruit. Using virus-induced gene silencing in fruits, we have down-regulated the expression of SlCHS during ripening and compared the cuticles derived from silenced and nonsilenced regions. Silenced regions showed a pink color due to the lack of flavonoids incorporated to the cuticle. This change in color was accompanied by several other changes in the cuticle and epidermis. The epidermal cells displayed a decreased tangential cell width; a decrease in the amount of cuticle and its main components, cutin and polysaccharides, was also observed. Flavonoids dramatically altered the cuticle biomechanical properties by stiffening the elastic and viscoelastic phase and by reducing the ability of the cuticle to deform. There seemed to be a negative relation between SlCHS expression and wax accumulation during ripening that could be related to the decreased cuticle permeability to water observed in the regions silencing SlCHS. A reduction in the overall number of ester linkages present in the cutin matrix was also dependent on the presence of flavonoids.

Postharvest pigmentation in red Chinese sand pears (Pyrus pyrifolia Nakai) in response to optimum light and temperature

The development of red color in the peel of red Chinese sand pears (Pyrus pyrifolia Nakai) is influenced by temperature and light; however, the response patterns vary among different cultivars. In this study, we systematically investigated the influence of postharvest treatment with various temperatures (low, high, variant and constant) on detached mature fruit of red Chinese sand pear ‘Mantianhong’ and ‘Meirensu’. Fruit of red apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) ‘Royal Gala’ and red European pear (P. communis L.) ‘Cascade’ received the same treatments for comparison. Furthermore, the effects of light quality and irradiance level on ‘Mantianhong’ pears were evaluated at the optimum temperature for anthocyanin accumulation. Fruit firmness and concentrations of total soluble sugars and organic acids were measured to determine fruit quality. The effect of temperature on red Chinese sand pear fruit color was similar to that of apples, but not European pear. Moreover, low temperature more effectively induced red coloration in ‘Mantianhong’ and ‘Meirensu’ pears than high temperature; anthocyanin levels increased with increasing irradiance level from 0 to 532μmolm−2s−1, and UV-B and visible light synergistically improved the red color of the fruit. Therefore, a combination of low temperature and high intensity of UV-B/visible light could improve the postharvest coloration of red sand pear fruit. The results will contribute to an improved understanding of the mechanism responsible for the coloration of red Chinese sand pears and will aid development of new techniques to improve color in postharvest fruit.

CO2및 기온 상승이 '후지'/M.9 사과나무의 광합성, 신초생장 및 과실품질에 미치는 영향

This study was conducted to find out the influence of elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations and air temperature on photosynthesis and fruit quality of ‘Fuji’/M.9 apple trees and to investigate these to the effects of climate change during the last four years (2009-2012). The treatments employed were: ‘Ambient’ (ambient temperature + ambient CO2 concentration); ‘High CO2’ (ambient temperature + elevated CO2 concentration); ‘High Temp.’ (elevated temperature + ambient CO2 concentration); and ‘High CO2 + High Temp.’ (elevated temperature + elevated CO2 concentration). The elevated temperature plots were maintained at 4 o C higher than ambient air temperature, while the elevated CO2 plots were maintained at 700 µmol·mol �1 . Annual treatment period was applied from end of April to beginning of November for four years. Results showed that elevated CO2 decreased stomatal conductance and leaf SPAD value, but increased photosynthetic rate, intercellular CO2 concentration (Ci), and starch content of mesophyll tissue. In the vegetative growth, elevated temperature increased total number of shoot and total shoot growth per tree, but elevated CO2 decreased average shoot length. In the fruit quality, elevated CO2 increased soluble solid content, fruit red color, and ethylene production. In conclusion, elevated CO2 increased photosynthetic rate of apples during the early growth, but effect of increased photosynthetic rate due to elevated CO2 was decreased during latter growth stage. Elevated temperature, on the other hand, tended to decrease photosynthetic rate of apples during the early growth, but that tended to increase during latter growth stage. Both elevated CO2 and temperature tended to decrease the degree of decreased photosynthetic rate due to each factor.

Malus sieversii: A Diverse Central Asian Apple Species in the USDA-ARS National Plant Germplasm System

There are several Central Asian Malus species and varieties in the USDA-ARS National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) apple collection. Malus sieversii is the most comprehensively collected species native to Central Asia. Other taxa such as M. sieversii var. kirghisorum, M. sieversii var. turkmenorum, M. pumila, and M. pumila var. niedzwetzkyana have primarily been donated to the collection by other institutions and arboreta. We sought to determine if genetic and/or phenotypic differences among the individuals that make up the gene pools of these taxa in the NPGS exhibit unique characteristics. Genetic data, based on microsatellite analyses, suggested that the diversity within each taxa is significantly greater than that among taxa. Trait data also revealed very few differences among taxa, the primary characteristic being the dark red fruit coloration and tinted flesh color of the accessions assigned to M. pumila var. niedzwetzkyana resulting from a known single-gene mutation in anthocyanin production. We found that M. sieversii is a highly diverse species with a range in genetic and phenotypic trait variation that includes the characteristics of the other Central Asian taxa of interest. We conclude that the gene pools that comprise the accessions within the NPGS Central Asian Malus collection are highly overlapping with respect to both phenotypic traits and genotypic characters.

Postharvest ultraviolet-C irradiation suppressed Psy 1 and Lcy-β expression and altered color phenotype in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fruit

Mature green cherry tomato fruit were harvested and treated with ultraviolet-C (UV-C) irradiation at a predetermined dose of 4.2kJm−2, and stored at 18°C for 35 days. The effects of UV-C treatment on color change, pigment contents, and the expression of major genes involved in carotenoid metabolism, including Psy 1, Pds, Lcy-β, and Lcy-ɛ, encoding phytoene synthase, phytoene desaturase, lycopene β-cyclase and lycopene ɛ-cyclase, respectively, were examined. The UV-C treated fruit developed a pink red color in contrast to the normal orange red color of control fruit. Lycopene accumulation during ripening in UV-C treated fruit was significantly inhibited but its final content was not affected. However, both accumulation and final content of β-carotene were significantly suppressed in UV-C treated fruit. The lower content of β-carotene, leading to a higher lycopene to β-carotene ratio, is probably responsible for the altered color phenotype in UV-C treated fruit. Psy 1, a major gene involved in lycopene synthesis was inhibited by UV-C irradiation. Significantly suppressed expression of Lcy-β gene was also observed in UV-C treated fruit. Thus it is possible that the lower transformation from lycopene to carotenes contributed to the relatively stable content of lycopene.

Transcriptome analysis of the exocarp of apple fruit identifies light-induced genes involved in red color pigmentation

Although the mechanism of light regulation of color pigmentation of apple fruit is not fully understood, it has been shown that light can regulate expression of genes in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway by inducing transcription factors (TFs). Moreover, expression of genes encoding enzymes involved in this pathway may be coordinately regulated by multiple TFs. In this study, fruits on trees of apple cv. Red Delicious were covered with paper bags during early stages of fruit development and then removed prior to maturation to analyze the transcriptome in the exocarp of apple fruit. Comparisons of gene expression profiles of fruit covered with paper bags (dark-grown treatment) and those subjected to 14h light treatment, following removal of paper bags, were investigated using an apple microarray of 40,000 sequences. Expression profiles were investigated over three time points, at one week intervals, during fruit development. Overall, 736 genes with expression values greater than two-fold were found to be modulated by light treatment. Light-induced products were classified into 19 categories with highest scores in primary metabolism (17%) and transcription (12%). Based on the Arabidopsis gene ontology annotation, 18 genes were identified as TFs. To further confirm expression patterns of flavonoid-related genes, these were subjected to quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) using fruit of red-skinned apple cv. Red Delicious and yellow-skinned apple cv. Golden Delicious. Of these, two genes showed higher levels of expression in ‘Red Delicious’ than in ‘Golden Delicious’, and were likely involved in the regulation of fruit red color pigmentation.