Red Flowers Research Articles

Creation of a collection fund and study of cultivars of daylilies in the M. M. Gryshko National Botanical Garden of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine

Purpose. Analysis and comparative study of daylily cultivars from the collection fund of the M. M. Gryshko National Botanical Garden of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NBG), selection of assortment for decorative horticulture and landscaping. Methods. Cultivars from the NBG daylily collection were studied. The cultivars were evaluated in terms of their aesthetic and economic attributes, and were classified according to their coloration and the timing of their flowering. The author of the cultivar, country of origin, year of creation and introduction into the NBG were also identified. The cultivars were also grouped according to these parameters. Results. The NBG daylily collection is the result of 40 years of introduction and 20 years of breeding work with this crop at the NBG. It includes 174 world cultivars, 26 cultivars of Ukrainian breeding and more than 1000 hybrid seedlings. Most of the cultivars (79) were introduced in 2000–2009. The main part of the current structure of the daylily collection consists of cultivars bred in the 1960–1970s. Most of these are hybrids from American breeders: David F. Hall (20 cultivars) and Allen Wild (46 cultivars). A total of 15 new cultivars were developed based on the original collection. These new cultivars feature double flowers, a valuable trait for hybrids in Ukraine. For effective use in ornamental horticulture and landscaping, the cultivars were grouped according to flower colour and flowering time. The yellow­flowered group is the most widely represented. A large number of cultivars with red flowers are inherent in hybrids bred between 1980 and 1999. Cultivars from modern breeding are mostly represented by the purple and pink colour group. Most of the cultivars in the collection are early and medium early. The smallest part is made up of medium­late and late hybrids. Conclusions. The modern daylily collection is representative. The cultivars introduced into the NBG illustrate the main stages of breeding work with the crop and the achievements of breeders from different countries of the world. The collection includes early and medium early, medium, medium late and late flowering cultivars. Varying in colour and flowering time, the collection can be effectively used to extend the flowering period of daylilies by three months (from the second decade of May to the second decade of August) in ornamental gardening in Ukraine and in various landscape compositions.

A massive community-science dataset reveals convergent evolution of delayed flowering phenology in North American red-flowering plants.

The radiation of angiosperms is marked by a phenomenal diversity of floral size, shape, color, scent, and reward. Through hundreds of years of documentation and quantification, scientists have sought to make sense of this variation by defining pollination syndromes. These syndromes are the convergent evolution of common suits of floral traits across distantly related species that have evolved by selection to optimize pollination strategies. The availability of community-science datasets provides an opportunity to develop new tools and to examine new traits that may help further characterize broad patterns of flowering plant diversity. Here we test the hypothesis that flowering phenology can also be a pollination syndrome trait. We generate a novel flower color dataset by using GPT-4 with Vision (GPT-4V) to assign flower color to 11,729 North American species. We map these colors to 1,674,908 community-scientist observations of flowering plants to investigate patterns of phenology. We demonstrate constrained flowering time in the eastern United States for plants with red or orange flowers relative to plants with flowers of other colors. Red-and orange-colored flowers are often characteristic of the "hummingbird" pollination syndrome; importantly, the onset of red and orange flowers corresponds to the arrival of migratory hummingbirds. Our results suggest that the hummingbird pollination syndrome can include flowering phenology and reveal an opportunity to expand the suite of traits included in pollination syndromes. Our methods demonstrate an effective pipeline for leveraging enormous amounts of community science data by using artificial intelligence to extract information about patterns of trait variation.

A new species of <i>Pitcairnia</i> (Bromeliaceae) with nocturnal anthesis from Oaxaca, Mexico

Background: Pitcairnia is the third largest bromeliad genus in Mexico with 57 species and ca. 82.5 % endemism, and is characterized mostly by zygomorphic, ornithophilous flowers of diurnal anthesis in several hues of red, orange, or yellow, whereas white or green flowers are uncommon. Moreover, there are just a few species with nocturnal anthesis in Megamexico. One of them is documented and discussed here. Questions: Is the Pitcairnia with campanulate, fragrant flowers of nocturnal anthesis from Oaxaca different from other species with similar characters native to Mexico and the Neotropics and what is its conservation status? Studied species: Pitcairnia abundans, P. lokischmidtiae, P. zapoteca. Study site and dates: Oaxaca, Mexico, 2016-2024. Methods: Live plants, herbarium material, protologues, and high-resolution images of herbarium specimens, both of the new taxon and of morphologically similar taxa, were studied and compared against each other. The conservation status of the new species was assessed using the IUCN criteria. Results: Pitcairnia zapoteca is similar but different at the species level from P. lokischmidtiae from Jalisco; both share campanulate flowers of nocturnal anthesis and a musky or frutal fragances. The conservation status of the new taxon is assessed as DD. Conclusions: Pitcairnia zapoteca is a new species, only known from the type locality in the state of Oaxaca and only one of three Mexican species with campanulate, white, yellowish or greenish flowers of nocturnal anthesis. The assessment the true conservation status of the new taxon requires detailed exploration of the SE portion of Oaxaca.

Molecular mechanism of flower colour formation in Rhododendron simsii Planchon revealed by integration of microRNAome and RNAomics.

Systems-wide understanding of gene expression profile regulating flower colour formation in Rhododendron simsii Planchon is insufficient. In this research, integration analysis of ribonucleic acid (RNA)omics and microRNAome were performed to reveal the molecular mechanism of flower colour formation in three R. simsii varieties with red, pink and crimson flowers, respectively. Totally, 3129, 5755 and 5295differentially expressed gene (DEG)s were identified through comparative transcriptome analysis between 'Red variety' and 'Pink variety' (1507 up-regulated and 1622 down-regulated), 'Red variety' and 'Crimson variety' (2148 up-regulated 3607 down-regulated), as well as 'Pink variety' and 'Crimson variety' (2089 up-regulated and 3206 down-regulated), which were involved in processes of 'catalytic activity', 'binding', 'metabolic process' and 'cellular process', as well as pathways of 'metabolic pathways', 'biosynthesis of secondary metabolites', 'plant-pathogen interaction' and 'phenylpropanoid biosynthesis'. A total of 215 miRNAs, containing 153 known miRNAs belonging to 57 families and 62 novel miRNA, were involved in flower colour formation. In particular, 55 miRNAs were significantly differently expressed. Based on miRNA-mRNA regulatory network, ath-miR5658 could affect the synthesis of pelargonidin, cyanidin and delphinidin through downregulating accumulation of anthocyanidin 3-O-glucosyltransferase; ath-miR868-3p could regulate isoflavonoid biosynthesis through downregulating expression of CYP81E1/E7; ath-miR156g regulated the expression of flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase; and ath-miR829-5p regulated flavonol synthasein flavonoid biosynthesis process. This research will provide important roles in breeding new varieties with rich flower colour.

Comparative study of natural dyes extracted from dark red and yellow Frangipani flowers (Plumeria rubra L.) as DSSC sensitizer

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC) provide credible alternative for the inorganic solid-state photovoltaic devices. In this work, natural sensitizer extracted from Plumeria rubra L. flower (Frangipani) in ethanol has been used as the sensitizer dye. Dark red and yellow species of Frangipani flower petals extracted natural dyes have been studied for their comparative performance as sensitizer dye. FTIR revealed the presence of hydroxyl and carbonyl group in the sensitizer dye, which helped in binding with TiO2. UV-Visible analysis revealed absorption in visible region, which got broadened for dye loaded TiO2. Mass spectrometry confirmed major chemical constituents present in Plumeria rubra L. flower. For the HOMO and LUMO levels of dark red and yellow Frangipani flowers, the density functional theory (DFT) calculation was performed. Light-to-electricity conversion efficiency (ɳ%) of dark red Frangipani flowers was achieved 0.148 % with Voc 0.27 V, Jsc 0.88 mA/cm2 and FF 0.62, which was comparatively higher than yellow Frangipani flowers-based cell having ɳ% 0.128 % with Voc 0.54 V, Jsc 0.37 mA/cm2 and FF 0.64, respectively. For analyzing the charge transfer characteristics, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) studies were carried out. The dark red species of Frangipani flower showed better result as sensitizer dye compared to the yellow species.

Estimating the Concentration of Heavy Metals in Oleander/Pink and white Oleander Plants

Oleander is a large ornamental evergreen shrub that may grow 20–25 ft in height. During the summer months’ large clusters of white, pink, red, or yellow (yellow oleander) flowers appear at the ends of the branches. All parts of the plant contain cardiac glycosides. Oleander is a common source of serious plant poisoning. In South Asia, particularly Sri Lanka, also present in Libya desert and some house gardens with white and pink types, oleander has become a notorious method of suicide. Toxicity is largely characterized by gastrointestinal symptoms and cardiac abnormalities. Tachy or bradydysthythmias may be present in addition to slowed conduction and heart block. Hyperkalemia is common and correlates with severity of poisoning. A specific antidote—digoxin-specific fragment antigen-binding region (Fab region)- is available. In Mediterranean climates oleanders can be expected to bloom from April through October, with the heaviest bloom usually occurring between May and June. Free-flowering varieties like 'Petite Salmon' or 'Mont Blanc' require no period of rest and can flower continuously throughout the year if the weather remains warm. The exact nature of plant poisoning varies from region to region, but certain plants are almost ubiquitous in distribution and among these, Oleander is a garden plant that features in many homes. Incidents of poisoning from these plants are therefore not uncommon and may be the result of accidental exposure or deliberate, suicidal ingestion of the toxic parts. An attempt has been made to review the management principles with regard to toxicity of these plants and survey the literature in order to highlight current concepts in the treatment of poisoning resulting from both plants. Ingestion of its seeds results in a clinical picture similar to digoxin toxicity. It contains cardiac glycosides that are toxic to cardiac myocytes and autonomic system. Cardiac glycosides of oleander cause poisoning by inhibiting plasmalemmal Na+/K+-ATPase. Results: The poisoning effects of plant or their active alkaloids induced infiltration of cells with hemorrhage and sever negative changes in the lung, induce lesions, and infiltration of inflammatory cells into the portal spaces with scattered necrosis of hepatocytes in the liver, cardiac toxicity of the plant in the heart were included, induced varying degrees of hemorrhage, myocardial degeneration, and necrosis. It also induced arrhythmia, sinus bradycardia, and prolonged P-R interval in electrocardiographic records. Conclusions: The toxic effects of N. oleander are mostly related to its inhibitory effects on the Naþ-Kþ ATPase pump in the cellular membrane. However, the exact molecular mechanism involved in the toxicity of N. oleander is not clear.

Characterization, quantitation, and natural variability of phenolics in Rhododendron arboreum leaves of western Himalayan origin using UPLC-PDA and UHPLC-ESI-Q/TOF-MS/MS

Rhododendron arboreum Sm. is very popular in the Indian Himalayan region due to its significant ethnomedicinal importance and potential commercial applications. Apart from the ornamental value derived from its vibrant red flowers, fresh flowers are used to prepare medicinal juices, and dried are utilized as spices. Despite being a rich source of phenolics, these lack identified marker chemicals and validated methods. The present work encompasses the chemical investigation of R. arboreum leaves using UHPLC-ESI-Q/TOF-MS/MS. The chemotypic variability was assessed through a reverse phase ultra-performance liquid chromatography method coupled with a photodiode array detector (RP-UPLC-PDA) chemical signatures of R. arboreum leaves from different altitudes combined with chemometric analysis. The chromatographic method was developed and validated for the quantitative analysis of three vital secondary metabolites, i.e., Isoquercetin or Quercetin-3-O-glucoside (Qg), Reynoutrin or Quercetin-3-O-xyloside (Qx), and Quercitrin or Quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside (Qr)The hyphenation of the method with ESI-Q/TOF-MS/MS has confirmed the distribution of 11 chemicals (nine known and two unknown) in R. arboreum leaves belonging to the phenolic and hydrolyzable tannins class. Samples from higher altitudes >3000 m (above mean sea level) were exceptionally rich in Quercitrin. The chemometric investigation, comprising hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), principal component analysis (PCA), and partial least square method-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), successfully categorized thirty-three samples from diverse geographic regions into two distinct categories. This current study provides a validated method for the chemotypic discrimination and quality assessment of the R. arboreum leaves from Uttarakhand, Western Himalayan region of India, and laid the foundation for the comprehensive utilization of these renewable and sustainable resources.

Response of Four O’clock Flowers (Mirabilis jalapa L.) to the Short Length of Illumination (Photoperiodism)

Long photoperiods can delay flower initiation and slow down the formation of flower primordia, so they can delay flowering. This study aims todetermine the photoperiodism response of four o'clock flowers (Mirabilis jalapa L.) to the short length of irradiation. The research was carried out for 3months (April-June 2024) and specifically data collection was carried out on 8 June 2024 in Bulurejo village, RT.03 RW. 04, Karangmojo, Weru District,Sukoharjo Regency, Central Java. From 05.53 WIB to 17.30 WIB. Samples of 15 plants growing in Bulurejo village, observed when the flowers bloom. Datawere analysed descriptively qualitative and combined with literature studies. The results of research on 15 plants of four o'clock flower (Mirabilis jalapa L.),the same species and location of four o'clock flower blooming turned out to be different times even though the difference was only slight. The average time ittakes to bloom is 10 hours 42 minutes. Further research needs to be done with a variety of different flowers, not only red flowers, but plus white, red andmixed colours with varied village locations, especially at differentaltitudes.Four o'clock flower (Mirabilis jalapa L) is a member of the family Nyctaginaceae, order Centrospermae, and is easy to grow in the yard withoutmuch care.

Education Should Not Be Superficially Appealing: An Analysis of Behavioral Intervention Techniques in "Little Red Flowers"

Education Should Not Be Superficially Appealing: An Analysis of Behavioral Intervention Techniques in "Little Red Flowers"

Attractiveness of Tetragonula laeviceps (Hymenoptera: Apidae) to Citrus Volatile Compounds and Flower Colors in Indoor Microclimate Conditions

Tetragonula laeviceps plays a vital role as a primary pollinator of citrus flowers for successful pollination. However, there is still a lack of understanding about how T. laeviceps can find citrus flowers. This study aimed to elucidate the factors influencing the attraction of T. laeviceps to citrus flowers, focusing on microclimate conditions, and visual and olfactory factors. For this, we conducted six-choice assays in a stingless bee house using artificial flowers as visual cues and citrus essential oils as olfactory stimuli. Three pairs of red or white artificial flowers were displayed to adult workers, with each pair placed in glass vials filled with diluted orange (Citrus reticulata) essential oil, lemon (Citrus limon) essential oil, or solvent. Simultaneously, microclimate conditions were measured, including temperature, relative humidity, and light intensity. We observed that the highest number of T. laeviceps visited the artificial flowers at 11:00, irrespective of visual and olfactory factors. We also found a positive correlation between the number of visits and both temperature and light intensity, whereas there was a negative correlation with humidity. The number of visits did not exhibit a significant difference between flower colors. In contrast, we observed the highest visitation to the orange essential oil, followed by the lemon essential oil and solvent. Gas Chromatograph – Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis revealed common terpenes in orange and lemon essential oils, while linalool and α-citral were predominantly detected in the orange essential oil. These characteristic terpenes could potentially be the attractants for T. laeviceps.

An Overview of the Use of Natural Indicators in Acid-Base Titrations

While titrimetric and gravimetric analysis were the most concerning analytical techniques, they are now the most commonly used techniques for identifying chemicals. The endpoint in the titrimetric analysis method is identified by colour changes from one medium to another caused by the addition of chemicals referred to as indicators. There are a lot of synthetic indicators on the market these days, which are expensive and pollute the environment. Human toxicity is produced by a number of synthetic markers. As demonstrated by their use in acid-base titrimetric analysis, floral extracts have a very promising analytical potential. Seven plant extracts were found to function well in strong acid-strong base titrations: violet cabbage, beetroot, red hibiscus flower (shoe flower), turmeric powder, red rose flower, henna leaves, and pink Mirabilis Jalapa flower (4 o'clock flower). For the violet cabbage, there was a noticeable and distinct colour shift from pale pink to violet; for the beetroot, it was dark brown to red; and for the red hibiscus flower extract, it was pale yellow to pink.

Reproductive biology as a tool to elucidate taxonomic delimitation: Howdifferent can two highly specialized subspecies of Parodia haselbergii (cactaceae)be?

Reproductive isolation is one of the mechanisms of speciation. The two currently accepted subspecies of Parodia haselbergii (P. haselbergii subsp. haselbergii and P. haselbergii subsp. graessneri) were studied regarding flower traits, phenology, breeding systems and pollination. In addition, a principal component analysis with 18 floral characters and germination tests under controlled conditions were performed for both taxa. Pollination was studied in the field, in two localities of Southern Brazil. Pollinators were recorded through photos and film. Breeding system experiments were performed by applying controlled pollinations to plants excluded from pollinators. Both taxa mostly differ in asynchronous flowering periods, floral traits (including floral part measurements and nectar concentration) and pollinators. The flowers of both subspecies are functionally protogynous and perform remarkably long lifespans (≥ 15 days), both traits being novelties for Cactaceae. Whereas the reddish flowers of P. haselbergii subsp. haselbergii (nectar concentration: ca. 18%) are pollinated by hummingbirds of Thalurania glaucopis, the greenish flowers of P. haselbergii subsp. graessneri (nectar concentration: ca. 29%) are pollinated by Augochlora bees (Halictidae). Both subspecies are self-compatible, yet pollinator-dependent. The principal component analysis evidenced that both subspecies are separated, regarding flower traits. The seeds of both subspecies performed differently in the germination tests, but the best results were recovered at 20°C and germination considerably decreased around 30°C. In conclusion, all these results support that both taxa are in reproductive isolation, and can be treated as different species.

A Case Study of Florivory: Rewards for Pollinators of Bombax ceiba (Linn.), In and Around Gondia District (Maharashtra) India

Bombax ceiba is a deciduous tree also known as Red Silk Cotton or Semal or Katesawar. In India it belongs to Bombacaceae (Baobab family). Identification can be easily made when it is in full bloom with most enchantingly beautiful huge blood red flowers in the month of March and April. B.

Observation of sunlight diffraction through tree twigs and leaves

This work reports the observation of sunlight diffraction through empty spaces in between twigs and leaves in tree crowns. The diffraction patterns are dominated by red wavelength on front followed by the trail of rest of spectral bands of white light rainbow bursts. Tree crowns act as obstacles and apertures causing diffraction/ interference of solar rays. Separation between leaves and twigs (d) is a few inches and distance between crown and camera (D) is in range of a few meters. Empty spaces in tree crown are much longer than red to violet wavelengths in sunlight therefore scattering, dispersion, reflection, diffraction and interference effects cannot be ruled out. Tree crown deflects solar rays into narrow angles all around to enable interference inside camera lens to create grating structure diffracting light into regular patterns. Diffraction pattern look like red petunia flower having 3 × 3 rose petals. Motorola mobile phone camera was used to record the sunlight diffraction patterns. Mobile camera consists of small focal length (≈5 mm) lens, a fixed opening aperture and an image sensor. Lens consists of few plastic or glass elements and sensor consists of charge coupled device (CCD) or CMOS technology. These diffraction/ interference patterns have potential to increase efficiency of Next Gen solar cells. This paper describes possible theoretical background of light diffraction and multiple ray interference through tree twigs and leaves.

Yield and morphological characteristics of cloves from Semarang plantation, Indonesia

Abstract Cloves, originating from Indonesia’s Moluccas Islands, have spread across various regions over time. Semarang, Central Java, is a notable clove production center, showcasing distinct advantages. Despite originating in the 1980s, Semarang’s clove production remains robust, boasting longevity and high yields. This study focuses on Semarang’s clove plantation, which belongs to the Samyo Rahayu Farmers Group in Gebugan Village, Bergas. The research aimed to evaluate clove yield and morphological traits. The methodology involved selecting high-yield blocks followed by the selection of mother trees. Morphological characteristics like canopy shape, stem dimensions, leaf attributes, and inflorescence traits were examined. Additionally, GC-MS analysis identified oil chemical components. Findings revealed an average plant height of 11.72 m and trunk circumference of 115.55 cm. Canopy shape primarily exhibited a cylindrical form with 1-3 main branches. Leaves displayed green, glossy, and smooth textures upon maturity, transitioning from reddish to bright red in their young shoots, with petiole length of 2.17cm, leaf length of 10.96 cm, and leaf width of 4.39 cm and ratio 2.5. Inflorescences followed a short type, with pink to red mature flower tubes, rounded or slightly pointed corollas, and distinctive red corollas – characteristics typical of the Zanzibar type. Inflorescences were characterized by short arrangements, with an average of 12-20 flower buds per inflorescence. There were tree-to-tree fresh flower yield fluctuations between 40 to 100 kg. Dried clove bud with water content 5.73-6.82 % contained oil 14.67 – 17.96 %. Essential oil compounds analysis indicated the presence of 15-20 chemical components, with eugenol constituting over 70%, signifying its primary compound. This population may be recommended as genetic material for breeding high-yielding cloves.

An O-methyltransferase gene, RrCCoAOMT1, participates in the red flower color formation of Rosa rugosa

Rosa rugosa, a valuable ornamental plant species, has high aromatic, ornamental and medicinal values. Diversification of flower color is one of the main purposes for ornamental horticultural breeding, especially the red phenotype. Understanding the molecular mechanism of red color formation regulated by O-methyltransferase (OMT) during anthocyanin biosynthesis is necessary. In this study, 38 candidate members belonging to the CCoAOMT (11) and COMT (27) subfamilies were systematically identified with average lengths of 227 and 360 amino acids, respectively. Two subfamily members had different chromosome distribution characteristics, exon/intron structures, and conserved motifs, consistent with the phylogenetic analysis result of 257 OMT members from six species. Cis-elements in the promoter region of RrCCoAOMTs were mainly involved in hormone and stress response. RrCCoAOMT1 was mainly expressed in petals, and its expression level was significantly decreased in red flowers with high relative percentage of cyanidin. Moreover, RrCCoAOMT1 was separated from other RrCCoAOMTs based on the multiple sequence alignment analysis. Silent expression of RrCCoAOMT1 caused the formation of red/deep-pink phenotypes on purple- and pink-flowered germplasms with an increase in the ratio of Cy3G5G to Pn3G5G. Overall, RrCCoAOMT1 was involved in the modification of red petal color in R. rugosa via changing the ratio of Cy3G5G to Pn3G5G, and may be transcriptionally regulated by MYB transcription factors. These findings provided a theoretical foundation for further studies on the regulation mechanism of red phenotype formation in R. rugosa, and provided important gene resources for flower color improvement breeding.

Impact of polyploidization on genome evolution and phenotypic diversity in oil-tea Camellia

Oil-tea Camellia (OTC) is a valuable oil crop with diverse applications across the food, cosmetics, and medicine sectors. However, understanding the impact of chromosome polyploidization on genome evolution and phenotypic diversity in OTC remains challenging. This study addressed this knowledge gap by focusing on the origins and impacts of OTC polyploidization. The chromosomal karyotypes of 10 representative samples were examined, and their relationships were elucidated through hierarchical clustering analysis of karyotype parameters. Based on the phylogeny of the genus Camellia, the ancestral 1 C-value and 1 Cx-value were reconstructed, revealing an increase in the 1 C-value and a reduction in the 1 Cx-value associated with polyploidization. Notable positive correlations between ploidy level, genome size, and fruit size were highlighted by phylogenetic generalized least squares analysis. The phenotypic characteristics and chromosomal evolution of OTC were reconstructed. It was inferred that the genus Camellia, which was originally diploid, underwent 11 chromosomal duplication events. With the emergence of polyploidization, phenotypic traits transitioned from small fruits, autumn–winter flowering, and white flowers to larger fruits, spring flowering, and red flowers. Biogeographically, it is suggested that OTC first appeared in the Lingnan region, and subsequent species dispersion and hybridization significantly influenced the emergence of polyploid species. In conclusion, evidence has shown that OTC polyploidization increases genome size and enhances phenotypic diversity. This research enhances our understanding of the complex genetic mechanisms that drive species evolution, influence genome changes, and contribute to the domestication of Camellia plants. Furthermore, these findings offer insights that can inform future breeding and cultivation strategies for OTC.

Identification of novel flower anthocyanins of Delphinium grandiflorum cultivars

Flower color is one of the most important properties of ornamental flowers. Information on the kinds of pigments that flowers can biosynthesize is useful for breeding cultivars focused on flower colors. The flower colors of regular ornamental delphinium cultivars are blue, violet, purple, pink, and white. The pigments of these flowers are delphinidin-based anthocyanins. It has been reported that the typical modification in delphinium anthocyanins involves the transfer of glucose and p-hydroxybenzoic acid molecules to the 7-position of delphinidin one by one, and it was predicted that other unidentified anthocyanins are present in addition to the already reported ones. Recently, light pink flowers that accumulate pelargonidin-based anthocyanins were reported from cultivars derived from Delphinium grandiflorum. Converting delphinidin-based anthocyanins to pelargonidin-based ones is considered key to producing red flowers in delphinium. Hence, we investigated anthocyanins of blue, mauve, light pink, and white flowers of D. grandiflorum cultivars. We isolated anthocyanins and analyzed them using HPLC, TLC, UV–vis spectra, FABMS, and NMR. Using these methods, we identified two novel delphinidin-based anthocyanins and three novel pelargonidin-based anthocyanins: delphinidin 3-O-[6-O-(α-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-glucopyranoside]-7-O-[6-O-(p-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-glucopyranoside] (2), pelargonidin 3-O-[6-O-(α-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-glucopyranoside]-7-O-[6-O-(4-O-(6-O-(p-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-glucopyranosyl)-p-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-glucopyranoside] (5, rubrodelphin), pelargonidin 3-O-[6-O-(α-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-glucopyranoside]-7-O-[3-O-(β-glucopyranosyl)-6-O-(4-O-(6-O-(p-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-glucopyranosyl)-p-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-glucopyranoside] (6), delphinidin 3-O-[6-O-(α-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-glucopyranoside]-7-O-[3-O-(3-O-(6-O-(p-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-glucopyranosyl)-β-glucopyranosyl)-6-O-(4-O-(6-O-(p-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-glucopyranosyl)-p-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-glucopyranoside] (7), and pelargonidin 3-O-[6-O-(α-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-glucopyranoside]-7-O-[3-O-(3-O-(6-O-(4-O-(6-O-(p-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-glucopyranosyl)-p-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-glucopyranosyl)-β-glucopyranosyl)-6-O-(4-O-(6-O-(p-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-glucopyranosyl)-p-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-glucopyranoside] (9, rosedelphin), along with four known anthocyanins. The flowers of five blue cultivars accumulated cyanodelphin (8) as the dominant pigment. The shapes of visible absorption spectra of these five blue flowers were similar, indicating that the color and the absorption spectra were the typical ones for delphinium blue color produced by 8. The mauve flower color was due to a mixture of delphinidin-based anthocyanins in various polyacylated levels at the 7-position. The light pink flowers accumulated pelargonidin-based anthocyanins 5, 6, and 9. These pigment structures showed that the pelargonidin-based anthocyanins modified in the same way as in the originally biosynthesized delphinidin-based anthocyanins even though aglycone was replaced by pelargonidin in these anthocyanins.

Antibacterial Activity of Ethanolic Extract of Red Frangipani Flowers (Plumeria rubra L.) on the Growth of the Bacteria Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

Introduction: MRSA is an antibacterial resistance problem that requires serious treatment. The limitations of antibacterials make it difficult to treat infections. The development of alternative antibacterial is needed. Objectives: This study shows the antibacterial effect of ethanol extract of Plumeria rubra L. flowers against MRSA bacteria. Methods: This research is a true experimental research with the only post-test control group design. The Kirby-Bauer test method was used to evaluate the antibacterial activity of ethanol extract of Plumeria rubra L. flowers with concentrations of 20%, 40%, and 60% in triplicate. The test bacteria used MRSA ATCC 33591 bacteria. Antibacterial activity was assessed from the diameter of the inhibition zone formed in bacterial cultures on agar media. Results: The inhibition zone were not formed after ethanolic extract of Plumeria rubra L. flowers at various concentrations. These were not antibacterial activity shown from Plumeria rubra L. flowers extract at concentrations of 20%, 40%, and 60%. Conclusions: The ethanolic extract of Plumeria rubra L. flowers does not show antibacterial activity against MRSA bacteria. Keywords: Red frangipani flowers (Plumeria rubra L.), antibacterial activity, MRSA.

Mass spectrometry and Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy profiles of red and pink Rhododendron flower petals establish them as rich sources of bioactive secondary metabolites

AbstractRhododendron petals are considered high‐value owing to their commercial utility, national/state flower status in certain countries, and bioactive potential from recent studies. Profiling and quantitative analysis of the bioactive metabolites would evaluate if they can be natural sources. This study is focused on the comprehensive profiling of secondary metabolites in the hot aqueous petal extracts of Red and Pink Rhododendron flowers (Rhododendron arboreum and Rhododendron campanulatum) using separation and fragmentation patterns from mass spectrometry (MS) (gas chromatography‐MS and liquid chromatography‐tandem MS) and chemical shifts from proton‐nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The complementary analytical platforms highlighted the petals to be rich in promising bioactive molecules such as quinic acid, chlorogenic acid (caffeoyl quinic acid), protocatechuic acid, coumaroyl quinic acids, catechin, epigallocatechin, and shikimic acid. The analysis also reflected the activity of shikimic acid, phenolic acid, and flavonoid biosynthetic pathways in Rhododendron flowers. These metabolites are well reported for their bioactive potential as anti‐oxidative, anti‐viral, anti‐cancerous, anti‐diabetic, anti‐inflammatory, etc. While the quantitative and multivariate analysis showed variations in the levels of phenolic acids and flavonoids, it is established that red and pink Rhododendron flower petals are a rich source of bioactive phytochemicals of interest to the phytochemical Industry.