Red Enamel Research Articles

Some problems of research of the Yuan Dynasty copper red enamel porcelain (you’li-hong)

In the scholarly exploration of Chinese ceramic history, the Yuan Dynasty emerges as a pivotal era, distinguished by its remarkable advancements in porcelain artistry, culminating in the mastery of porcelain craft. This period is notably marked by the emergence and refinement of underglaze red porcelain, a quintessential embodiment of Yuan ceramic excellence. The inception of underglaze red porcelain, a technique entailing the application of copper-containing colorant to porcelain before overlaying it with a transparent glaze and firing at temperatures exceeding 1350°C in a reducing kiln atmosphere, is historically attributed to the Yuan Dynasty. This technique, which flourished subsequently during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, represents a significant evolution in ceramic art. Each Chinese dynasty contributed uniquely to the ceramic arts, with the Yuan Dynasty particularly enhancing the underglaze red porcelain technique during its middle and late periods, as evidenced by the sophisticated coloration in surviving artifacts. This study aims to thoroughly examine the underglaze red porcelain of the Yuan Dynasty, highlighting its artistic uniqueness and exceptional craftsmanship. The paper commences with an overview of the Yuan Dynasty’s historical context—its political, economic, and cultural landscape—setting the stage for a deeper understanding of the underglaze red porcelain’s development. This is followed by an exploration of the porcelain’s creation process, including material selection and firing methods, to underscore the intricacies of its craftsmanship. Furthermore, a detailed analysis of the artistic and decorative elements of the underglaze red porcelain will be undertaken, focusing on aspects such as form, design motifs, and glaze hues, to unpack its stylistic and aesthetic dimensions. The culmination of this paper will be an evaluation of the historical significance and artistic merit of the Yuan Dynasty’s underglaze red porcelain, offering insights into its enduring legacy and influence on subsequent ceramic traditions. Through this comprehensive investigation, the study not only enriches our understanding of the Yuan Dynasty’s ceramic artistry but also underscores the importance of preserving and promoting traditional Chinese ceramic heritage. Additionally, it provides a foundation for further scholarly inquiry and conservation efforts in the realm of ancient Chinese ceramics.

Jewellery of East European Champlevé Enamel Style among Materials of Saltiv Culture: Data Analysis

In the paper jewellery from sites and complexes of the Saltiv culture, which do not chronologically fit within the boundaries of its existence, is analysed. All finds can be divided into two groups (fig. 1): East European champlevé enamel style (group I) and “antiquities of the Antes ” (group II). The second group, in turn, is divided into products typical for the hoards of the Martynivka circle (group II, subgroup 1) and items typical for the Pastyrske hillfort (group II, subgroup 2). In the article the first group is presented. It is represented by three monuments, where four finds were discovered (Table 1). First of all, there is the Tsimliansk Right-bank hillfort. Two fibulae of East European champlevé enamel style were discovered. 1. Bronze fibula, triangular (fig. 2: 3). The decoration belongs to late variations: from the middle of the 3rd to the 5th: type IV (fibulae with elements of degradation), subtype 2 after: G. Korzukhina (fig. 3; 4). 2. The upper part of the T-shaped fibula. The item is from the cultural layer at a depth of 20 cm (fig. 2: 2). The clasp belongs to late variations: from the middle of the 3rd to the 5th or even the middle — second half of the 4th century. Belongs to type IV, subtype 1 after: G. Korzukhina or to the third series, type 2 after: Ye. Hokhovskyi (fig. 5; 6). The lower extent of the Don River is not the only point with finds of East European champlevé enamel style. However, other finds come from sites and complexes of the Late Roman period. Such finds could have entered this region with the Late Sarmatian population. Secondly, there is the Dmitrievka cemetery which was investigated by S. Pletneva. A female burial from the end of the 8th century was discovered in catacomb no. 44. The lunar pendant was found on the belt according to G. Korzukhina. Korzukhina, although S. Pletneva claims that the item got into the catacomb by accident. This is a large three-horned lunar pendant, with round platforms at the ends also decorated with red enamel (fig. 7: 1). The decoration belongs to type I according to G. Korzukhina and is dated by the advanced stage of the style’s existence to the end of the 2d — 3dcenturies (fig. 7; 8). Eleven locations with finds of East European champlevé enamel style and 17 monuments of Kyiv culture are known in the upper reaches of the Siverskyi Donets River. Finally, there is the Sukha Homilsha cemetery 1 which was investigated by V. Mikheev. In burial no. 274, a detail of a rectangular link of a chain with slotted fields without enamel was found. This object belongs to late variants dated to the period from the middle of the 3rd to the 5th centuries. The burial itself is dated to the second half of the 8th — the beginning of the 9th century (fig. 9; 10; 11). East European champlevé enamel style finds and monuments of Kyiv culture are also known within the Kharkiv Oblast. Jewellery of Martynivka circle hoards and items typical for the Pastyrske hillfort from Saltiv monuments are often considered as evidence of Penkivka and Saltiv connections. However, finds of East European champlevé enamel style from Saltiv monuments has signs of the secondary usage. It indicates that other finds may also have been reused. The next works are devoted to the consideration of wellery and products typical for the Pastyrske hillfort from Saltiv monuments.

EASTERN EUROPEAN CHAMPLEVE ENAMELS: COMPOSITION, TECHNOLOGY, AND THE ISSUE OF IDENTIFYING PRODUCTION CENTRES (RED OPAQUE ENAMEL)

The composition of 139 samples of red enamel items from different regions of Eastern and Central Europe was studied using the SEM-EDS method. Most of the enamels were made following the “recipe” of provincial Roman enamellers; in some cases “ordinary” red glass was used. The high degree of standardization of the “recipes” for the manufacture and colouring of Roman glass and enamel does not make it possible to distinguish between the products of different manufacturing centres in most cases. At the same time, the peculiarities of the composition of spurs suggest the existence of specialized centres for their production, while specific features of penannular brooches suggest the possibility of distinguishing some types originating from the Baltic region. The heterogeneity of enamels with the “classical” composition indicates the functioning of numerous enamel workshops, rather than a centralized production.

Enamels analysis of Doucai porcelain with Chenghua mark by non‐destructive micro‐EDXRF

AbstractThe Chenghua Doucai of the Ming Dynasty represents the highest level of craftsmanship among enamelled porcelain, and it remained popular throughout the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Consequently, Doucai porcelain with a pseudo‐Chenghua mark was produced almost continuously after the Chenghua reign. In this article, non‐destructive energy dispersive micro x‐ray fluorescence (micro‐XRF) is used to analyse Doucai wares with Chenghua mark from the Ming and Qing Dynasties and modern period. Using micro‐XRF mapping technology, the different elemental maps in the blue, green, red, yellow enamels demonstrate that the Doucai is fired with a various colouring materials. The blue is coloured by cobalt, the green is coloured by copper, and the red and yellow are coloured by a lot of iron and a few of iron, and lead in all enamels except for the underglaze blue with different contents. Even though the primary enamels of Doucai wares with the Chenghua mark are similar, the wares made in the Qing Dynasty display more types of enamels than Chenghua reign's. For instance, there are two types of red enamels; the darker red enamel contains manganese (Mn) in addition to iron (Fe), and the modern yellow enamels of Doucai contain titanium (Ti) in addition to iron (Fe). This study compared the changes of colouring materials for Doucai of different times and demonstrated that the micro‐XRF elemental mapping technology is a valuable tool to reveal the compositional characteristics and ware production procedures.

Red glass in Kunckel's Ars Vitraria Experimentalis: The importance of temperature

AbstractThe role of the melting conditions and furnaces used to the obtained final colors has always been a question raised when investigating formulations and recipes of historical glasses. The focus of the present work is the reproduction of three recipes of red enamel glass of the manuscript by Neri, L'arte vetraria (1612) following the translation and comments by Kunckel's in Ars Vitraria Experimentalis (1679). The reproductions include the production of each individual compound of the selected recipes following instructions, and the final glass production in electric and wood‐fire furnaces to assess the effect of different melting conditions. A multianalytical approach was used to fully characterize the produced samples allowing the study of the enamel chemical composition, color, crystals formations, and thermal properties. The results indicate that no significant color differences may be attributed to the melting conditions. However, it revealed that the samples produced in the electric furnace at 1200°C present a high crystallinity degree and the formation of white crystals at room temperature in a short period of time. The formation of crystals on glass is critical, and historically, to avoid it, these recipes must have been made at temperatures between 1050 and 1100°C.

Colouristic Analysis of Russian Orders

In addition to the symbolism, compositional laconism and colour palette are important for the visual perception of an order. The combination of colours is the first thing perceived by the human eye. This article offers an analysis, based on colour science and colouristics, of the colours and their combinations used to create orders. The work examines three periods of the Russian order: the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union, and modern Russia. Gold, silver, platinum, and sometimes copper are used in the manufacture of orders. Each of these metals has its own colour: gold is golden yellow, silver and platinum are of silver-grey colour, and copper is golden pink. The colour of the enamel may be ruby red, white, blue, grey, black and green. All orders are divided into four groups. Orders for which only one colour is used are in the first group. These are orders made of one type of metal without the use of enamel. The second group includes awards to which, in addition to the base metal, enamel or the second metal is added. Orders consisting of three colours are in the third group; orders with four colours or more are in the fourth group. An order which is made using only ruby red enamel can be considered an example of a good and concise combination. The classic combination of the silver-grey metal with red enamel works very well. The yellow colour of the metal matches with the red one, creating a bright festive palette. The same as the combination of the saturated and the neutral, the golden yellow goes well with the silver-grey. In addition to the base metals, such as silver and enamel, gilding is used in other awards. As a rule, red is dominant in such orders; some elements are gilded but the silver-grey colour balances the bright combination of red and golden. The next category of orders with four or more colours can be divided into two subgroups. The first subgroup includes orders with one or two dominant colours whereas orders with four or more colours, distributed relatively evenly, are in the second one. Having analysed the orders of the three historical periods of Russia, the following conclusions can be drawn: the royal orders are more conservative, the most interesting colour combinations are from the Soviet era, the modern awards have largely lost the experience of previous generations.

Study of the firing type on the microstructure and color aspect of ceramic enamels

The enameling is a technique of decoration whereby objects or flat surfaces are covered by a vitreous glaze that is fused by intense heat to create a brilliantly colored decorative effect. It is an art form noted for its brilliant, glossy surface, which is hard and long-lasting. It is known that the firing method used to produce enamels plays a very important role in the color rendering. The objective of this work was to compare enamel decors obtained with two kinds of firing systems: a conventional furnace and infrared emitters, in order to gain better understanding and control the development of new colors. The results highlighted a deep impact of the heating technique on the final color due to the formation of layers having very different chemical phases and textural properties. The obtained materials have been characterized by different physico-chemical techniques such as infrared spectroscopy, XRD, SEM and EDS. Infrared heating allowed the production of nearly pure red enamel decor with a shiny aspect which was not the case with conventional furnace firing. The paper also showed that color design of different color shades would be possible by using hybrid systems allowing a fine tuning of thermal gradients during the heat treatment.

湿式合成法で作製したAl固溶ヘマタイト粒子の分散凝集状態が粉末と赤絵の色調に及ぼす影響

湿式合成法で作製したAl固溶ヘマタイト粒子の分散凝集状態が粉末と赤絵の色調に及ぼす影響

Research and Development Project on the Domestic Raw Materials of Enamel for Jewelry Production

The project aims to produce quality enamel colors from locally available materials in order to reduce costs. In the course of the research, information is collected on imported enamel colors and a study is carried out on chemical compositions and quality of the colors. At the same time, there is a study on local materials which can potentially be used to produce enamel colors, starting from basic colors such as red, blue and green. The study has found that the imported enamel colors qualify as lead glass because it contains 23-28% of lead. The study has also found that red enamel (transparent) blue enamel (transparent), blue enamel (opaque), green enamel (transparent), and green enamel (opaque) have similar level of density and hardness. Red enamel (opaque) has lower level of density and hardness due to its porosity which can be observed with naked eyes. The COE level is similar for all of the tested colors because their chemical compositions are similar. The study produces quality blue and green enamel at much lower cost. Colors of the enamel are achieved by adding different metal oxide. The color blue (translucent and opaque) is from adding cobalt (Co). Chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt and copper (Cu) together produces translucent dark green, while chromium and copper (without cobalt) produces opaque as lighter green. However, it has not been able to produce red enamel yet but has requested for samples from another research project “Developing New Technology to Produce Jewelry from Synthesized Red Crystal” for further study.Keywords: Enamel; Jewelry; Glass; Local Raw Materials

Production technology of Byzantine red mosaic glasses

The study of glass tesserae found in the excavations of the St Severo basilica at Classe, Ravenna, Italy, sixth century A.D., besides a comparison between these materials and those used for the decorations of the other churches of Ravenna built in the same epoch, has stimulated a discussion on the production technology of the red tesserae, which colour is due to the presence of metallic copper and/or cuprite (Cu2O) particles. As regards the opaque red glasses of the Iron Age, Roman and Byzantine periods, studies of English authors are particularly interesting, but the conclusions of the present study are partially in contrast with what reported in the literature that is based mainly on red enamels and much less on red mosaic glasses. For the studied Byzantine red mosaic glasses it is suggested the use of lead and lead-tin alloy scraps, besides additions of ash of the vegetal fuel, to attain the suitable reducing conditions during the melting process.

A Nondestructive Methodology for the Study of Colored Enamels: Insights into Manufacturing and Weathering Processes

We studied ancient enamels on gilded copper from a collection of archeological horse harness pendants of the Museo Instituto Valencia de Don Juan (Madrid, Spain) to test the benefits of a new, nondestructive analytical methodology based on chemometric analysis (i.e., Principal Component Analysis, PCA) on micro‐ATR‐FTIR spectral data and chemical quantification using SEM‐EDS. The novelty of this approach was threefold: (i) PCA allowed the discrimination of the different harness pendants of known origin and attributed to the 14th and 15th centuries according to the chemical complex composition, nanostructure, glass weathering, and/or coloring mechanisms of each colored enamel, separately (i.e., red, purple, blue, and white), (ii) it is a cheap, easily available and nondestructive methodology that enables us to (iii) draw archeological conclusions about the quality of the manufacturing process, reassess the chronology of these objects and attempt to attribute them to different workshops according to the different traditional recipes identified. In particular, the enamels were made of alkali and/or alkaline earth lead‐glass with a wide range of chemical compounds in the form of pigments or opacifiers. Two types of coloring mechanisms were identified, colloidal particles such as copper‐ruby for red enamels, and ionic mechanisms such as Fe(II) and Co(II) to achieve a blue pigments; Mn(III) in the purple pigment; and two kind of white enamels were identified, i.e., tin oxide as an opacifier and uranium oxide. In addition, we established the reason for the poor state of conservation of some of the enamels by means of the identification of depolymerization and ion exchanges, well‐known harmful effects of glass weathering, and finally a chronology was assigned for some of these pieces according to the enamel composition.

Mobile Raman spectroscopy analysis of ancient enamelled glass masterpieces

Richly decorated enamelled glass objects and fragments of different provenance and epoch have been analysed using mobile and fixed Raman instruments: some fragments of the outstanding Begram treasure (Musee des arts asiatiques – Guimet, Paris) dated to the 1st century AD, mosque lamps and bottles of Syrian/Egyptian provenance dated to the 13th/14th century (collections of Musee du Louvre and of Musee des arts decoratifs, Paris). The techniques are compared using the data obtained from the study of a group of similar objects and fragments discovered in Melfi Castle in the South of Italy in an archaeological context dated to the last quarter of the 13th century. The glass body was difficult to analyse requiring the use of high-energy high-power laser beams and/or sampling that allowed determining the soda-lime type precisely. In contrast, a variety of colouring agents was identified: lapis lazuli and/or cobalt for blue, antimonate pyrochlore solid solution for yellow, with the addition of cobalt/lapis lazuli for green, hematite for red and calcium phosphate/cassiterite/calcium antimonate for white. Where present, gilding was found applied on a rough and matt red enamel base probably in order to guarantee the physical adherence of the gold leaves. The comparison between the above mentioned groups of objects and between them and data existing in the literature about Roman enamelled glass allowed us to follow the evolution of the technology of this class of precious artefacts and to discuss the potential of the mobile Raman analysis.

Sword and Dagger Pommels Associated with the Crusades, Part II: A Technical Study

The article discusses the results of a technical study of a collection of medieval sword and dagger pommels owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, with particular focus given to the probable use of the lost-wax technique to create them and the conclusion that they were most likely created in Europe due to the presence of Champleve enameling. A brief overview of medieval metalwork is presented, and the pommels and their creation are described in detail. The association of the pommels with the crusades is also commented on.

A new procedure for the production of red gold purples at the “Manufacture nationale de Céramiques de Sèvres”

A new procedure for the production of red gold purples was developed at the “Manufacture de Sèvres” for the production of high-quality red gold enamels. A significant improvement in the synthesis of the red gold purple n° 601 compared to the historical method used since the 18th century was achieved by optimising, on physico-chemical bases, the conditions of synthesis of the starting gold colloid. In particular, the use of a purer tin precursor, a better control of the reaction times and of the pH conditions via the use of a hydrogenocarbonate buffer allowed a complete control of the tint of synthesised purple and of the resulting red enamel. This method allows the completely reproducible synthesis of consecutive batches of a constant red colorant, which ultimately permits a standardisation in the amount of gold added into other goldcontaining enamels (more than 8 other enamels). Compared to the other red enamels synthesised throughout his whole history, the new n° 601 can be classified among the most beautiful and valuable red enamels ever produced at the “Manufacture de Sèvres”.

Pragtvognen fra Fredbjerg

Pragtvognen fra Fredbjerg

Measurements of elastic properties of some coating materials

Corrosion and erosion on metallic substrates are prevented using coatings of primers and paints consecutively. The paint and primer should adhere well on to the metallic surfaces in the form of thin films. These adherent films are not always long-lasting. Elastic properties of films made of red oxide primers and polyurethane-based synthetic enamel paints were measured. The measurements included the modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, and strain energy. If taken into account, these findings may ultimately lead to improved primer-paint systems for the surfaces.

RED GLASS VESSELS FROM JERUSALEM1

Only a few well-preserved glass vessels made from opaque red glass have been published from the Islamic period. However, numerous red- glass fragments are known, some of which come from excavations, such as at Corinth, Hama and Fustat. This paper focuses on red glass vessels found in two groups uncovered in Jerusalem in the Old City's Jewish Quarter. One was uncovered in the course of official excavations conducted in the 1970s by the late Prof. N. Avigad, under the auspices of The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The Second is part of a group of artifacts purchased by the L. A. Mayer Museum for Islamic Art, Jerusalem, reported to have been found in the Jewish Quarter. Among the material in the excavated group, eleven fragments of red vessels were found. The Islamic Museum collection contains forty-three fragments, including a bowl that has been almost completely restored. An in-depth examination of these fragments reveals three different types of red glass: 1) vessels made from opaque red glass; 2) vessels madefrom greenish colorless glass painted with red enamel, which represent a new discovery in Islamic glass research; and 3) vessels in which red glass was mixed into greenish or yellowish colorless glass. The Islamic Museum collection includes all three types, while the excavated finds belong solely to the type painted with red enamel.All the fragments belong to vessels that were probably produced in Jerusalem datable to the Mamluk period, thirteenth to fifteenth century CE.

Ion beam analysis of Mosan enamels

To continue to investigate the techniques and materials used to create Mosanenamels, 20 enamelled plaques from the Louvre Museum have been studied.These objects date from the 12th to the beginning of the 13th century.PIXE and PIGME measurements have been performed to determine thecomposition of both the glass and the metal phases in the plaque. The resultsare compared with those previously obtained at the British Museum in1993 and at our laboratory in 1999.Mosan and Rhineland enamellersused pure copper (98–99 wt%) for the metal support and three differentglass compositions. During the 12th century all coloured glasses, with theexception of the red glasses, are soda-lime silicates—with mineral sodiumsources—opacified by antimony compounds. The red enamels are potash-limesilicates—with wood ash potassium sources. A chronological evolution for theglass composition is hypothesized using this evidence. Changes in the glasscomposition occurred at the end of the 12th and the beginning of the13th century. The glasses are soda-lime silicates—using plant ash sodiumsources—opacified by tin oxides. Exactly the same chronological evolutionis observed for the contemporaneous production of Limoges enamels.Roman tesserae dating from the second to the fourth century AD have beenanalysed for a comparative study with Mosan enamels. The possibilityof a reuse of Roman glass tesserae for Mosan enamels is discussed forthe blue and green glasses. No evidence exists, however, linking the redenamels to the red tesserae as their compositions are completely different.

'For Merit'--in medicine

23 June 2002 is the centenary of the letters patent of the Order of Merit (OM). King Edward VII started the Order in the year of his coronation (1902) to honour those who, in his opinion, had ‘Rendered exceptional meritorious service: in our Navy, our Armed Forces or towards the advancement of Art, Literature and Science’. The Prussian order Pour le Merite probably served as the model for the new honour. At any time there are only 24 members and there is no provision for expulsion. Honorary membership is now available to people from non-Commonwealth countries but only ten such awards have so far been made. Those selected for the honour are chosen by the Sovereign without the assistance of either counsellors or ministers. Appointees now include all the Crown services, both military and civil. The OM remains the most exclusive British honour. Scientists form the largest group and every President of the Royal Society has, so far, been a member. Prime Ministers are also well represented—six from the UK, two from Canada (Lester Pearson and Mackenzie King) and one from South Africa (General Smuts). Lord Lister was in the first list, which also included the physicist Lord Kelvin. HRH Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, is the youngest to have been appointed, having received the honour on his 47th birthday. Holders of the Order who are medically qualified or who have medical associations are listed in Box 1. In view of the growing interdependence of clinical and biological sciences I have included disciplines such as physiology, zoology and molecular chemistry. Alan Hodgkin and Dorothy Hodgkin were both members but genetics are not involved here because they were cousins by marriage. By contrast, the two Trevelyans, George Otto and George Macaulay, were father and son. Lord Adrian (Figure 1) is the only President of the Royal Society of Medicine to have been appointed OM. Unhappily, Florence Nightingale, the first female holder, was senile when she received the OM and never knew she had been so honoured. The most recent female members of the Order in the medical field are Dame Cicely Saunders and Mother Teresa. Robert Bridges, a Poet Laureate, was presumably recognized for his writing rather than his contribution to medicine. Figure 1 Lord Adrian OM, President of the RSM 1950-1955 [Drawing by Edward I Halliday] Box 1 OMs with medical training or medical connections Only three people are known to have refused the Order—all writers. Rudyard Kipling refused twice, A E Housman and George Bernard Shaw once. Shaw imagined that posterity would either rank him with Shakespeare or he would be regarded as a clown; either way, the OM would be irrelevant. The insignia is an eight-pointed cross bearing the words ‘For Merit’ with the Royal Cipher on the reverse (Figure 2). This simple badge of blue and red enamel is surmounted by an Imperial Crown and worn on a garter ribbon of blue and crimson. Crossed silver swords are added for military members. Figure 2 Insignia of the OM, military (obverse) and civil (reverse)

Composition and Origin of Early Mediaeval Opaque Red Enamel from Britain and Ireland

Opaque red enamel was examined semi-quantitatively using X-ray fluorescence on 41 objects dating to the Early Mediaeval period, and 11 of these were analysed quantitatively using energy-dispersive X-ray analysis in the scanning electron microscope. The enamels are copper-lead-silica glasses, and differ from the opaque reds of the pre-Roman and Roman periods in their low alkali contents. The red glass ingot purported to be from near Kilmessan and the Hill of Tara, Ireland, and previously thought to be a potential source for much Early Mediaeval Celtic enamelwork, is of the earlier type and is thus not related to Mediaeval enamelling. The compositional difference is paralleled in a small number of lead isotope analyses. It is demonstrated that the enamels most probably represent re-use of metallurgical raffination slags.