Subspecies Of Red Deer Research Articles

Seasonal habitat selection of the red deer (Cervus elaphus alxaicus) in the Helan Mountains, China

We studied the seasonal habitat selection of the red deer, Cervus elaphus alxaicus Bobrinskii & Flerov, 1935, in the Helan Mountains, China, from December 2007 to December 2008. Habitat selection varied widely by season. Seasonal movements between high and low elevations were attributed to changes in forage availability, alpine topography, the arid climate of the Helan Mountains, and potential competition with blue sheep, Pseudois nayaur (Hodgson, 1833). The use of vegetation types varied seasonally according to food availability and ambient temperature. Red deer used montane coniferous forest and alpine shrub and meadow zones distributed above 2,000 m and 3,000 m in summer, alpine shrub and meadows above 3,000 m in autumn, being restricted to lower elevation habitats in spring and winter. The winter habitat of C. elaphus alxaicus was dominated by Ulmus glaucescens Franch. and Juglans regia Linnaeus, deciduous trees, and differed from the habitats selected by other subspecies of red deer. Cervus elaphus alxaicus preferred habitats with abundant vegetation coverage to open habitats in winter, but the reverse pattern was observed in summer and autumn. Red deer preferred gentle slopes (<10°) but the use of slope gradient categories varied seasonally. Red deer avoidance of human disturbance in the Helan Mountains varied significantly by season. Information on red deer habitat selection can help understand the factors affecting seasonal movements and also support decision making in the management and conservation of red deer and their habitats.

Vocal anatomy, tongue protrusion behaviour and the acoustics of rutting roars in free‐ranging Iberian red deer stags (Cervus elaphus hispanicus)

Roaring in rutting Iberian red deer stags Cervus elaphus hispanicus is unusual compared to other subspecies of red deer, which radiated from the Iberian refugium after the last glacial maximum. In all red deer stags, the larynx occupies a permanent low mid-neck resting position and is momentarily retracted almost down to the rostral end of the sternum during the production of rutting calls. Simultaneous with the retraction of the larynx, male Iberian red deer pronouncedly protrude the tongue during most of their rutting roars. This poses a mechanical challenge for the vocal tract (vt) and for the hyoid apparatus, as tongue and larynx are strongly pulled in opposite directions. This study (i) examines the vocal anatomy and the acoustics of the rutting roars in free-ranging male C.e.hispanicus; (ii) establishes a potential mechanism of simultaneous tongue protrusion and larynx retraction by applying a two-dimensional model based on graphic reconstructions in single video frames of unrestrained animals; and (iii) advances a hypothesis of evaporative cooling by tongue protrusion in the males of a subspecies of red deer constrained to perform all of the exhausting rutting activities, including acoustic display, in a hot and arid season.

Analysis of genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationship of red deer subspecies in XinJiang, China

Polymorphisms for seven microsatellite loci in three red deer subspecies (9 populations) found in XinJiang were detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 12% nondenaturation polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and the Sanguinetti silver staining method. Numbers of alleles, average effective numbers of alleles (E) and the average rate of homozygosity, allelic frequencies of seven microsatellite loci, polymorphism information content (PIC), mean heterozygosity (H) and genetic distances among the populations were calculated for each population. Dendrograms were constructed based on genetic distances by the neighbor-joining method (NJ), utilizing molecular evolutionary genetics analysis software PHYLIP (3.6). The phylogenetic tree was constructed based on allelic frequencies using maximum likelihood (ML); the bootstrap value was estimated by bootstrap test in the tree. Lastly, phylogenesis was analyzed. The results showed that four of the seven microsatellite loci were highly polymorphic, but BMS2508 and Celjp0023 showed no polymorphism and BM5004 was a neutral polymorphism. It is our conclusion that the four microsatellite loci are effective DNA markers for the analysis of genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships among the three red deer subspecies. The mean PIC, H and E-values across the microsatellite loci were 0.5393, 0.5736 and 2.64, which showed that these microsatellite loci are effective DNA markers for the genetic analysis of red deer. C.e. songaricus populations from Regiment 104, 151 and Hami are clustered together. C.e. yarkandensis populations from Regiment 35, Xaya and Alaer are clustered together. These two clusters also cluster together. Lastly, C.e. sibiricus populations from Burqin, Regiment 188 and the first two clusters were clustered together. The phylogenetic relationship among different red deer populations is consistent with the known origin, history of breeding and geographic distributions of populations.

Seasonal variations in plant mineral content and free-choice minerals consumed by deer

The aim of this study was to assess the seasonal differences in mineral contents of plants often consumed by wild red deer located in a fenced game estate, south-eastern Spain. Forage plants were sampled throughout 1 year and analysed for macro and trace mineral concentrations. We also offered a cafeteria set of supplemented minerals to assess whether: (i) intake reflected seasonal reductions in plant content of specific minerals; or (ii) intake of mineral supplements responded to increased deer demand of minerals as a result of greater seasonal needs likely arising from lactation, antler growth or skeletal growth. Although no significant seasonal trend was found in mineral distributions of plants, our study suggested that concentrations of K, Mg, Mn, Na, P, Cu and Zn were usually low in plants available to, and consumed by, deer in the study area. In addition, Cu concentration was marginally deficient when compared with the published requirements for other subspecies of red deer. The cafeteria study showed that free-ranging deer had a strong preference for sodium compounds and zinc sulfate, a much weaker attraction to calcium iodate, and no intake in calcium phosphates, Mg and Fe. Consumption of supplemented minerals by deer was maximum in spring and summer and moderate during autumn and winter. Rather than increasing intake of minerals in response to their content in plants, deer may be responding to increased metabolic requirements during antler growth, late gestation and early lactation. Supplementation of mineral compounds is recommended, particularly in the spring–summer period, when the physiological activity is high.

VOCAL BEHAVIOUR IN THE ENDANGERED CORSICAN DEER: DESCRIPTION AND PHYLOGENETIC IMPLICATIONS

ABSTRACT Here we present the first description of the vocal behaviour of the Tyrrhenian subspecies of Red Deer, the Corsican Deer. Vocalisations from calves, hinds and stags were recorded. Their acoustic characteristics were analysed in order to contrast these with published data characterising central European Red Deer hind and calve contact calls and Scottish Red Deer stag mating calls. We found that the vocal repertoire of Corsican Deer was very comparable with that of central European and Scottish Red Deer, with the exception of one call type, the harsh roar, absent in the Corsican Deer repertoire. Because Corsican Deer are the smallest subspecies of Red Deer, we expected calls to be characterised by higher spectral components. However, while male roars did have higher vocal tract resonances, consistent with a shorter vocal tract, we found that the fundamental frequency (FO) was much lower than predicted, in fact the lowest recorded in any studied Red Deer subspecies. We also found a strong sexual dimorphism in FO, with male calls approximately twice as low as female calls, suggesting that the low FO observed in Corsican male roars is a result of sexual selection for lower-pitched males. The results of this study emphasise the phenotypic originality of Corsican Deer, and strengthen the case for its conservation. We also argue that future studies should compare the vocal behaviour of Corsican Deer with that of other circum-Mediterranean populations.

The Application of Reproductive Technologies to Natural Populations of Red Deer

Over the past decade, there has been increasing interest in the application of reproductive technology to the conservation and management of natural populations of deer. The application of assisted reproduction technologies within natural population of deer is in its infancy. However, its future potential is enormous, particularly in relation to genetic management or conservation. This paper reviews the present state of such technologies for a wild subspecies of red deer, the Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus), by discussing the major components of oestrous synchronization, semen collection/cryopreservation and insemination techniques. In addition, findings made during the course of studies on natural populations have enormous potential for the understanding of novel reproductive mechanism that may not be uncovered by livestock or human studies. A summary of these results are also reviewed here.

Haematological and serum biochemical reference values in free-ranging red deer (Cervus elaphus atlanticus)

Analyses of haematological and biochemical constituents were carried out on the Norwegian subspecies of free-ranging red deer (Cervus elaphus atlanticus). All animals were captured from January to March by using a mixture of xylazine and tiletamin-zolazepam. Immobilisation was performed with plastic projectile syringes fired from a dart gun. Fourteen haematological parameters were analysed. There were no differences in the values between hinds and stags and between adults and calves (P &gt; 0.01). Of the 22 biochemical compounds investigated there was a significant difference (P &lt; 0.01) between calves and adults for lactate dehydrogenase (LD), globulin, beta globulin, gamma globulin, and the minerals Na, K, Mg, Zn, Ca, and P. Differences (P &lt; 0.01) between hinds and stags were found in cholesterol, gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT), alpha-1 globulin, alpha-2 globulin and Cu. The blood values determined in this study can be used as reference values for this red deer subspecies immobilised with a mixture of xylazine-tiletamin-zolazepam for health control and diagnosis of diseases.Abstract in Norwegian /Sammendrag:Hematologiske og biokjemiske parametere er analysert på norsk frittlevende hjort (Cervus elaphus atlanticus). Hjorten ble immobilisert i tidsrommet januar til mars ved hjelp av et spesialgevær ladet med plast kanyler som inneholdt en blanding av xylazin og tiletamin-zolazepam. Det var ingen forskjeller i de14 undersøkte hematologiske verdiene mellom hinder, kalver og bukker (P&gt;0,01). Av de 22 biokjemiske parametrene som ble undersøkt var det en signifikant forskjell mellom kalver og voksne (P&lt;0,01) når det gjelder laktat dehydrogenase, globulin, beta globulin, gamma globulin og mineralene Na, K, Mg, Zn, Ca og P. Det var en signifikant forskjell mellom hinder og bukker (P&lt;0.01) på parametrene kolesterol, gamma glutamyl transferase, alfa-1 globulin, alfa-2 globulin og Cu. Blodverdiene som ble målt i dette studiet kan bli brukt som referanseverdier for norsk hjort som er immobilisert med blandingen xylazin-tiletamin-zolazepam for helsekontroll og for diagnostisering av sykdommer.

Are the New and Old World wapitis (Cervus canadensis) conspecific with red deer (Cervus elaphus)?

Some taxonomists have classified red deer and wapiti as being conspecific (Ellerman &amp; Morrison‐Scott, 1951; Flerov, 1952); others have split them into two species, Cervus elaphus and Cervus canadensis (Hall &amp; Kelson, 1959; Whitehead, 1972). The decision has been made each time largely on the basis of the size and form of the antlers, the proponents arguing that antler form is a good genetically‐based character, while the opponents view the antlers as being phenotypically very variable, depending largely on the environment for their formal expression.To avoid this controversy, we have used skull measurements, and only female material to reduce the possible effects of bias due to selection by hunters.The enzyme study methods of Gyllensten et al. (1983) and Dratch &amp; Gyllensten (1985) were considered inappropriate as they may reflect only physiological relationships, and rely on living material. Several races of New and Old World wapiti are now either extinct or very rare. Moreover, skull morphology will remain the basis for the classification of most vertebrate species.Sixteen variables, comprising length, breadth and depth measurements, were measured on 298 skulls, representing most of the different races of red deer and wapiti in both the Old World and the New. These sets of variables were analysed by Principal Component Analysis, and the first two components, accounting for 86.4% of the total variance, were plotted as a graph.The first component was clearly a measure of skull size, while the second component gave the greatest weightings to the breadth of the nasals and depth of the nose, in other words, skull shape.All the Old World red deer and wapiti samples formed a continuum of variation in skull size and shape; the only discontinuity being between these races and the North American wapiti, which differed from them mainly in size.The latter could therefore be classified as a subspecies of red deer, Cervus elaphus canadensis. However, because differences in other characters such as behaviour and reproduction are so slight, there appears to be no justification for distinguishing between them at the species level.

A re‐examination of the subspecies of Red deer (Cervus elaphus) with particular reference to the stocks in Britain

In 1906, Lönnberg identified a native subspecies of Red deer Cervus elaphus scoticus L., in Britain after examining a sample of stags' skulls from Glenquoich (Inverness‐shire, Scotland). In north‐west England, it is commonly believed that “Red deer of indigenous stock have persisted in this area (Furness Fells, Lancashire, England) from time immemorial…” (Chard, 1966). Arrangements were made to introduce animals into a park within this area in 1970, which, in view of this local opinion, would have been the only Red deer within the district not of native origin. Therefore, it was thought desirable to examine all the stocks of wild or feral Red deer in Britain and to determine which, if any, of them could be considered native and thus deserving of special measures to ensure their survival.After examining samples of skulls, using multivariate analysis, it appeared that, within the limits of the material representing the various subspecies of the world, there was little support for the concept of subspeciation in Red deer. In Great Britain, however, there appeared to be two distinct forms of Red deer leading a free existence, one presumed to be native and the other to be of park derivation. Visually, the differences were indetectable and could be demonstrated only by discriminant analyses.

The Bokharan Deer in the USSR

With a total population estimated at under 500, mostly living in forests that are constantly under threat of felling, the Bokharan deer or hangu1 is in serious danger of extinction. This is a red deer subspecies confined to the Turkmenistan —Afghanistan frontier region, and closely akin to the Kashmir hangul described in Oryx, December 1970. In this survey Professor Bannikov and Dr Zhirnov summarise what is known about it and its present status, and point to the rgent need for active protection measures.