Red Deer Density Research Articles

Continuous Fields From Imaging Spectrometer Data for Ecosystem Parameter Mapping and Their Potential for Animal Habitat Assessment in Alpine Regions

Remote sensing offers an objective and efficient way to monitor ecosystem properties including their spatial variability across different land cover types. Especially, the representation of gradients of biochemical and structural properties of ecosystems using continuous fields (CF) approaches bears advantages compared to discrete land cover classification schemes. This paper presents a concept to synergistically generate CF maps of an alpine ecosystem parameter, i.e., total surface water content, from imaging spectrometer (IS) data. Further, the potential of linking such maps to ecological patterns, i.e., the spatial distribution of large ungulates is being assessed. In vegetated areas, total surface water content is considered as a surrogate of plant physiological status. Water is, besides temperature, light, or nutrients, an important limiting growth factor determining biomass production and therefore potential animal forage quantity in alpine grasslands. Resource ecology interested in trophic interactions between large ungulates and their forage requires spatial and temporal information on ecosystem properties and processes. The study area is located in the upper Trupchun Valley (Val Trupchun) in the Swiss National Park (SNP). The valley is famous for its high densities of chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra L.), ibex (Capra ibex L.), and red deer (Cervus elaphus L.). CF maps of total surface water content were derived from Airborne Prism EXperiment (APEX) IS data collected over the SNP in June 2010 and 2011. Abundance maps of predominant land cover classes were derived from linear spectral mixture analysis (SMA). They were then combined with water content information of the respective land cover originating from either empirically or physically based approaches. The resulting CF maps depicted a spatially continuous representation of relative total surface water content. APEX IS data from two consecutive seasons revealed differences in total surface water content in June 2010 and 2011, predominantly related to an advanced phenological development in spring 2011 and to considerable differences in snow cover between the 2 years. Linking total surface water content of grasslands to observed ungulates spatial distributions did not reveal any statistically significant patterns of habitat use. We conclude that water availability in Val Trupchun may not be the dominant limiting factor for potential forage quantity (biomass), or that ungulates choose their grazing sites based on other criteria, i.e., high nutritious quality (P, N). Nevertheless, multitemporal CF maps derived from APEX IS data were found to provide spatially explicit and fine-scaled information for analyses of an ecosystem's total surface water content. The combination of multitemporal CF maps of a wide range of ecosystem parameters and more accurate and extensive observations of animal habitat use will contribute to ongoing and future vegetation-ungulates research in the SNP.

Eurasian lynx hunting red deer: is there an influence of a winter enclosure system?

As in several Central European areas, in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem (Germany and the Czech Republic), fenced feeding enclosures are used for the winter management of red deer (Cervus elaphus), which is an important component of the Eurasian lynx’s (Lynx lynx) winter diet. Using GPS telemetry data, we tested whether (1) lynx hunted red deer mainly selecting for high prey densities and environmental characteristics like a good level of habitat heterogeneity, independently of the enclosures’ presence; (2) enclosures attracted lynx and (3) positively influenced their predation on red deer, being predictable and abundant prey sources throughout the winter; or (4) extremely high deer densities inside the enclosures rather negatively influenced lynx predation on this species. We first compared lynx space usage and predation on red deer inside and outside the enclosures. Then, we investigated the effects of the environment, prey densities and the enclosure distance for the area outside of enclosures. Prey densities positively influenced lynx space usage, whilst the probability of predation on red deer was highest at medium to low red deer densities. Habitat heterogeneity and terrain ruggedness influenced both lynx space usage and probability of predation on red deer. Regarding the effect of enclosures, the ratio “area used during night vs. daytime” was larger by a factor of 2 inside compared to outside enclosures, and the probability of predation on red deer was three times higher inside rather than outside of enclosures; however, these differences were not statistically significant, suggesting that the influence of the enclosures is not very pronounced.

Spatial and seasonal variation in the prevalence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in questing Ixodes ricinus ticks in Norway.

BackgroundUnderstanding the variation in prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Lyme Borreliosis Spirochaetes, LBS) and Anaplasma phagocytophilum (causing tick-borne fever in ruminants and human granulocytic ehrlichiosis) in ticks is vital from both a human and an animal disease perspective to target the most effective mitigation measures. From the host competence hypothesis, we predicted that prevalence of LBS would decrease with red deer density, while prevalence of A. phagocytophilum would increase.MethodsBased on a sample of 112 adult and 686 nymphal Ixodes ricinus ticks collected with flagging during questing from 31 transects (4–500 m long) corresponding to individual seasonal home ranges of 41 red deer along the west coast of Norway, we tested whether there were spatial and seasonal variations in prevalence with a special emphasis on the population density of the most common large host in this area, the red deer (Cervus elaphus). We used a multiplex real-time PCR assay for detection of A. phagocytophilum and LBS.ResultsPrevalence of LBS was higher in adult female ticks (21.6%) compared to adult male ticks (11.5%) and nymphs (10.9%), while prevalence was similar among stages for prevalence of A. phagocytophilum (8.8%). Only partly consistent with predictions, we found a lower prevalence of LBS in areas of high red deer density, while there was no relationship between red deer density and prevalence of A. phagocytophilum in ticks. Prevalence of both bacteria was much higher in ticks questing in May compared to August.ConclusionsOur study provides support to the notion that spatial variation in host composition forms a role for prevalence of LBS in ticks also in a northern European ecosystem, while no such association was found for A. phagocytophilum. Further studies are needed to fully understand the similar seasonal pattern of prevalence of the two pathogens.

Correlation of TBE Incidence with Red Deer and Roe Deer Abundance in Slovenia

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a virus infection which sometimes causes human disease. The TBE virus is found in ticks and certain vertebrate tick hosts in restricted endemic localities termed TBE foci. The formation of natural foci is a combination of several factors: the vectors, a suitable and numerous enough number of hosts and in a habitat with suitable vegetation and climate. The present study investigated the influence of deer on the incidence of tick-borne encephalitis. We were able to obtain data from deer culls. Using this data, the abundance of deer was estimated and temporal and spatial analysis was performed. The abundance of deer has increased in the past decades, as well as the incidence of tick-borne encephalitis. Temporal analysis confirmed a correlation between red deer abundance and tick-borne encephalitis occurrence. Additionally, spatial analysis established, that in areas with high incidence of tick-borne encephalitis red deer density is higher, compared to areas with no or few human cases of tick-borne encephalitis. However, such correlation could not be confirmed between roe deer density and the incidence of tick-borne encephalitis. This is presumably due to roe deer density being above a certain threshold so that availability of tick reproduction hosts has no apparent effect on ticks' host finding and consequently may not be possible to correlate with incidence of human TBE.

The effect of sheep (Ovis aries) presence on the abundance of ticks (Ixodes ricinus)

The distribution of ticks is increasing in many parts of the world, including Norway. It has been suggested that this is linked to climate change while the role of different land use practices appears less clear. Here, we investigate the variation in abundance of questing ticks on the west coast of Norway and relate this to the presence of sheep, a tick host that also modifies the landscape through grazing. We found that questing tick abundance was higher in areas without sheep, suggesting that sheep alter vegetation in turn reducing tick survival. However, we cannot exclude that other mechanisms may also lead to reduced abundance of questing ticks; sheep may negatively affect the local density of red deer which is an important alternative host. In any case, sheep farming may contribute to limiting the local abundance of questing ticks and related diseases.

Browsing of sallow (Salix caprea L.) and rowan (Sorbus aucuparia L.) in the context of life history strategies: a literature review

Sallow (Salix caprea L.) and rowan (Sorbus aucuparia L.) constitute small proportions of the deciduous tree volume in Scandinavia, but are highly preferred winter forage for moose and red deer, which occur at historically high densities. Thus, a possible decline of these tree species has been indicated. Against this background, we have reviewed the life histories of relevance for browsing, as well as the basic biology and genetics of sallow and rowan. The species show similarities with respect to short lifespan, small size and sympodial growth pattern, which are risk factors in a browsing context. They also have high juvenile growth rate, important for growing quickly out of reach of browsers. Sallow depends strongly on disturbance for establishment and is more demanding with respect to soil and light conditions than rowan, possibly important for the substantially lower abundance of sallow on the Norwegian Forest Inventory plots. Similarly, the relative recruitment of small size classes of sallow is less than for rowan. Although recruitment is reported to be hampered in wintering areas with high moose or red deer densities, the inventory data, however, dating only back to 1994, do not suggest a general decrease in any of the species. Sallow and rowan saplings show low mortality in moose and deer dominated areas and the species can be characterised as rather resilient to browsing. Of more concern is that browsing can constrain the development of mature rowan and sallow trees locally, with possible consequences for associated epiphytic biodiversity.

Prevalence of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. in large game animals intended for consumption: Relationship with management practices and livestock influence

Although wild ruminants have been identified as reservoirs of Shiga-toxin producing Escherichia coli (STEC), little information is available concerning the role of Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. in large game species. We evaluated the presence of these pathogens in faeces (N=574) and carcasses (N=585) sampled from red deer (N=295), wild boar (N=333) and other ungulates (fallow deer, mouflon) (N=9). Animal sampling was done in situ from 33 hunting estates during two hunting seasons. Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. strains associated with human campylobacteriosis were infrequently detected indicating that both pathogens had a limited zoonotic risk in our study area. The overall STEC prevalence in animals was 21% (134/637), being significantly higher in faeces from red deer (90 out of 264). A total of 58 isolates were serotyped. Serotypes O146:H- and O27:H30 were the most frequent in red deer and the majority of isolates from red deer and wild boar were from serotypes previously found in STEC strains associated with human infection, including the serotype O157:H7. The STEC prevalence in red deer faeces was significantly higher with the presence of livestock (p<0, 01) where high densities of red deer (p<0.001) were present. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study reporting the occurrence of Salmonella spp. and STEC in carcasses of large game animals. Furthermore, this study confirmed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) that cross contamination of STEC during carcass dressing occurred, implying the likelihood of these pathogens entering into the food chain.

Densidad Poblacional Del Venado Temazate Rojo (Mazama Temama) En Dos Sierras Del Estado De Puebla, México

Se estimó la densidad poblacional (DP) del venado temazate rojo (Mazama temama) en la Sierra Norte-Nororiental (SNNO) y Sierra Negra (SN) de estado de Puebla, México. La metodología utilizada fue de tipo indirecto, mediante el conteo de huellas en transectos de un kilómetro de largo; seis transectos en tres localidades de la SNNO, y cinco en dos localidades de la SN. Los resultados obtenidos varían entre 8,3 y 3,7 venados/Km2, correspondientes a 12,1 y 27 ha/individuo respectivamente. La prueba estadística de Ji-cuadrada indicó que entre ambas sierras, no hay diferencias estadísticas significativas en la DP. Si se compara la DP del venado temazate rojo en el estado de Puebla, con los resultados obtenidos en diferentes sitios de México, que varían desde 0,1 hasta 6,6 venados/Km2, se deduce que la DP del venado temazate en Puebla es similar a otras zonas del país. Sin embargo, el tamaño poblacional mínimo viable (TPMV), considerado en 500 individuos, no se cumple, por lo que se recomienda manejar el cérvido a nivel de microrregión o en conjuntos prediales, para incrementar la superficie de manejo. Mientras tanto, es recomendable continuar los estudios de DP en otras localidades de ambas sierras, para determinar a futuro su posible uso racional mediante la caza deportiva. Se concluye que al estar sujeto actualmente a la caza ilegal, su población se encuentra en estado de vulnerabilidad.

Habitat suitability model for red deer (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758): spatial multi-criteria analysis with GIS application

Monitoring population trends is essential in wildlife management. In fact, to identify those environmental conditions linked to habitat use and selection is a key task in any conservation plan. Our aim in this work was predict red deer (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758) colonization in the Lombada National Hunting Area (LNHA), one of the largest wild populations in Portugal. The sharply increase in density and range of red deer over the last decades justify the careful monitoring of this population. A multi-criteria model using the Analytical Hierarchic Process (AHP) and GIS weighted spatial analysis with matrix algebra techniques were applied in this approach. This method was developed in three distinct phases: i) setting the objectives, ii) analysing pairs of factors through the application of a comparison matrix and iii) its synthesis with the weight assignment that followed a predetermined numeric range according to the ecological requirements of the study species. The variables used in the red deer habitat suitability model included the hydrographic network, asphalted roads, relief aspects and land use. From October 2010 to March 2011, a total of 129 observations along line transects were recorded and used to validate the final model. By using the AUC method it was obtained a success rate of 72%. Our results suggest that this method would be applied on a larger scale being suitable to predict red deer expansion. To our knowledge, this is the first study performed in Portugal using this methodological approach to assess the red deer-habitat relationships.

Habitat suitability model for red deer (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758): spatial multi-criteria analysis with GIS application

Monitoring population trends is essential in wildlife management. In fact, to identify those environmental conditions linked to habitat use and selection is a key task in any conservation plan. Our aim in this work was predict red deer (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758) colonization in the Lombada National Hunting Area (LNHA), one of the largest wild populations in Portugal. The sharply increase in density and range of red deer over the last decades justify the careful monitoring of this population. A multi-criteria model using the Analytical Hierarchic Process (AHP) and GIS weighted spatial analysis with matrix algebra techniques were applied in this approach. This method was developed in three distinct phases: i) setting the objectives, ii) analysing pairs of factors through the application of a comparison matrix and iii) its synthesis with the weight assignment that followed a predetermined numeric range according to the ecological requirements of the study species. The variables used in the red deer habitat suitability model included the hydrographic network, asphalted roads, relief aspects and land use. From October 2010 to March 2011, a total of 129 observations along line transects were recorded and used to validate the final model. By using the AUC method it was obtained a success rate of 72%. Our results suggest that this method would be applied on a larger scale being suitable to predict red deer expansion. To our knowledge, this is the first study performed in Portugal using this methodological approach to assess the red deer-habitat relationships.

Pellet group count methods to estimate red deer densities: Precision, potential accuracy and efficiency

Pellet group count methods are key tools for wildlife conservation and management. Therefore, it is essential to clarify the performance and suitability of the different pellet group count methods at distinct realities. This issue has been discussed by other researchers but with inconsistent conclusions, leaving open the necessity of additional studies. Aiming to fill this need, we used a combination of field data and simulation models to evaluate the density estimates, precision and potential accuracy of the results obtained through each pellet group count method, and also the sampling effort and efficiency associated with them. The methods evaluated were standing crop plot counts (FSCP), clearance plot counts (FAR), standing crop strip transect counts (ST) and standing crop line transect counts (LT). Deer density estimates by the four methods were statistically similar at all effort levels simulated. The analyses of CV trends reveal a better precision supplied by FSCP than by FAR for the same effort, while ST and LT yielded comparable values in analogous situations. The time required to make a survey is a key factor in the choice of a field technique. LT with distance sampling was the most efficient method to count pellet groups, while FAR seems to be the less proficient method. Attending to the limitations usually inherent to field surveys, like time, technicians and budget, LT appeared more efficient than the other methods, providing great precision and accuracy in less time. Nevertheless, at high densities and pronounced habitat heterogeneity, FAR became more efficient than FSC, do not requiring the decay rates, allowing accurate estimates in a few months when applied with the proper effort and environmental conditions. This study highlights the importance of carrying out pilot studies and simulation models to evaluate the sampling design prior to its implementation in the field.

Roads and supplemental feeding affect home-range size of Slovenian red deer more than natural factors

Most studies on the relationship between home-range size and composition focus on natural factors, whereas effects of anthropogenic factors are poorly understood. I evaluated effects of multiple natural and anthropogenic habitat factors, population density, and sex on the annual home-range size of red deer (Cervus elaphus) in wellpreserved forest areas in the Dinaric Mountains of Slovenia, Europe, based on .11,000 telemetry locations from 17 males and 25 females. Home ranges were 90–2,107 ha and averaged 460 ha. Using a mixed linear model, I estimated that home-range size decreased with increasing 1) red deer density, 2) supplemental feeding intensity, and 3) average annual temperature; 4) home-range size increased as the distance of main roads from the edge of the home range increased; and 5) males had a larger home range than females (580 ha versus 400 ha). These results were explained by effects of food availability (1, 2, and 3), energy expenditure of an individual (4 and 5), intraspecific interactions (1 and 5), and size of unfragmented habitat patches (4) on home-range size. To my knowledge, this is the 1st large mammal study to explicitly show that the density and spatial distribution of roads and supplemental feeding affect home-range size of red deer and that humans can have a greater impact on home-range size and shape than natural habitat factors. Ungulates are often supplementally fed to increase their value to hunters and to reduce forest damage, particularly in Europe; however, this practice can greatly reduce the home-range size, potentially leading to increased disease transmission and competition associated with the higher deer densities around feeding sites, which can result in just the opposite of what was intended.

Monitoring Red Deer and Roe Deer Population Density in Yedigoller-Yesiloz Wildlife Reserves in Turkey

Monitoring Red Deer and Roe Deer Population Density in Yedigoller-Yesiloz Wildlife Reserves in Turkey

Relationships between wild ungulates density and crop damage in Hungary

Game damage to agriculture represents one of the most important and most frequent human–wildlife conflicts worldwide. In Hungary and in the other European countries, damage caused by wild boar (Sus scrofa) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) is the most significant. The volume of damage is correlated with the population density of the game species, however, not exclusively. Since the growing expansion of wild ungulates is a general tendency in Europe, increasing conflicts can be envisaged. The objective of our study was to assess the possible relationships between the amount of agricultural game damage and big game population density considering some other factors (e.g. habitat structure, sown area of cultivated plants) by analysing wildlife management and land-use statistics for the 19 counties of Hungary from 1997 to 2008. According to the results, crop damage positively correlated with the population density of red deer and wild boar, with the length of forest edge, and the proportion of the sown area of maize. According to the regression model, these factors could be accountable for 74.2 % of the total agricultural game damage.

Why do Amur tigers maintain exclusive home ranges? Relating ungulate seasonal movements to tiger spatial organization in the Russian Far East

AbstractWild, solitary felids demonstrate a variety of spacing patterns, with diversity in spatial organization largely attributed to variations in abundance and distribution of important resources, particularly prey. We examined the relationship between territoriality of female Amur tigers Panthera tigris altaica and seasonal movements of a key prey species, Manchurian red deer Cervus canadensis xanthopygus, in the Russian Far East. We predicted that despite considerable seasonal fluctuations in productivity, red deer density does not change seasonally within tigress home ranges. We analyzed radio‐telemetry data to identify directional movements of deer as an indicator of relative changes in seasonal red deer abundance and distribution, and we looked for seasonal shifts in home ranges of tigresses that could signify tracking of migratory prey. We failed to detect either seasonal shifts in tigress home ranges or significant differences in seasonal prey abundance. Most red deer were sedentary, while those that migrated demonstrated varying directionality of movements. Relatively low average snow depth likely reduced directional migratory tendencies in prey populations. Despite existing theory that might predict high overlap of Amur tiger home ranges, our results suggest that exclusive spacing patterns in this tiger subspecies are at least partly explained by the absence of major spatial and temporal changes in ungulate abundance and distribution. We submit that the assumption that home‐range overlap should increase with increasing home‐range size may require further evaluation in cases such as that of Amur tigers.

MANDIBULAR OSTEOMYELITIS IN RED DEER (CERVUS ELAPHUS HISPANICUS) AND FALLOW DEER (DAMA DAMA): OCCURRENCE AND ASSOCIATED FACTORS IN FREE-LIVING POPULATIONS IN SOUTHERN SPAIN

The prevalence of mandibular osteomyelitis, which results in a condition called lumpy jaw, and factors associated with its occurrence were investigated in syntopic free-living populations of red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) and fallow deer (Dama dama) in Spain. The study material consisted of 3,586 mandibles from 2,548 red deer and 1,038 fallow deer shot during sport hunting, herd management culls, and programs for population control between 1988 and 1997 (period 1) and 2002 and 2009 (period 2) in eastern Sierra Morena, southern Spain. Disease prevalence ranged from 0.36% to 10.91% among age groups. Older animals were significantly more likely to be affected than younger ones. Red deer stags had higher prevalence than other groups. There was a significantly higher prevalence in period 1, probably associated with differences in climatic and population conditions. High population densities of female red deer contributed significantly to occurrence of disease. Intensive herd management and poor environmental conditions were considered risk factors that increased susceptibility to disease. The study of this affliction could be useful for monitoring general herd welfare and ecologic changes in Mediterranean ecosystems.

Saturation deficit and deer density affect questing activity and local abundance of Ixodes ricinus (Acari, Ixodidae) in Italy

The wood tick Ixodes ricinus, one of the most common arthropod-borne disease vectors, is of increasing relevance for human and animal health in Europe. The aim of this study was to determine the relative contribution of several abiotic and biotic factors potentially affecting questing activity and local abundance of I. ricinus in Italy, considering the scale at which these factors interact with the host-seeking ticks. Within EDEN, a large-scale EU collaborative project on eco-epidemiology of vector-borne diseases, we collected questing ticks for three consecutive years using a standard protocol at eleven sites in the Italian Alps and Apennines. A total of 25 447 I. ricinus were collected. All sites showed the same annual pattern of tick activity (bimodal for nymphs and unimodal for larvae and adults), although the abundance of nymphs was statistically different between sites and years. A Generalized Linear Mixed Model and a Linear Mixed Model fitted to data for nymphs, showed that while the principal variables affecting the local abundance of questing ticks were saturation deficit (an index combining temperature and relative humidity) and red deer density, the most important variable affecting questing nymph activity was saturation deficit. As for the timing of seasonal emergence, we confirmed that the threshold temperature at this latitude for larvae is 10°C (mean maximum) while that for nymphs is 8°C.

Red deer density in the air-polluted area of forest ecosystems in the Krušné hory Mts. - Klášterec nad Ohří Forest District

The density of red deer in the area of forest ecosystems disturbed by air pollution in the Kru&amp;scaron;n&amp;eacute; hory Mts. &amp;ndash; Kl&amp;aacute;&amp;scaron;terec nad Ohř&amp;iacute; Forest District was determined in two model hunting districts Jelen&amp;iacute; hora and Čern&amp;yacute; potok. To determine the density of red deer two methods were used, namely the clearance plot method and a method without the clearance of transects &amp;ndash; faecal standing crop. Based on the repeated counting of faecal pellet groups on 16 marked plots (No. 1 to 16) in the research area, mean values of the estimate of the red deer population density were determined in the Jelen&amp;iacute; hora hunting district in 2007 and 2008 using the FSC method, viz 24 &amp;plusmn; 23 individuals&amp;middot;km&lt;sup&gt;&amp;ndash;2&lt;/sup&gt; (95% CI) and the CPM method, viz &lt;br /&gt;105 &amp;plusmn; 88 individuals&amp;middot;km&lt;sup&gt;&amp;ndash;2&lt;/sup&gt; (95% CI) and in the Čern&amp;yacute; potok hunting district using the FSC method, viz 8 &amp;plusmn; 5 individuals&amp;middot;km&lt;sup&gt;&amp;ndash;2&lt;/sup&gt; (95% CI) or 77 &amp;plusmn; 50 individuals&amp;middot;km&lt;sup&gt;&amp;ndash;2&lt;/sup&gt; (95% CI) by the CPM method. No statistically significant differences were found out between the density of game and particular groups of similar biotopes.

Fluctuating ungulate density shapes tree recruitment in natural stands of the Białowieża Primeval Forest, Poland

Question: What are the main driving factors in 70 years of natural dynamics in tree recruitment in the Bialowieza National Park? Location: Bialowieza National Park, Poland, is one of the least disturbed temperate, lowland forest systems in Europe. Methods: We tested whether fluctuations in large herbivore populations, changes in climate and openness of the forest explained compositional dynamics. Tree recruitment (to size class DBH≥5 cm) was measured on permanent transects (in total, 14.9 ha) six times between 1936-2002. These data were related to existing data on ungulate density, climatic parameters and estimates of forest openness collected during the same period. Results: Total recruitment of all tree species combined was negatively correlated with total ungulate density and red deer density. The variation in response between species was related to the preferences of herbivores; the more preferred forage species (especially Carpinus betulus) were positively and the less preferred species negatively related to herbivore density. Total tree recruitment rates were not related to climatic parameters and openness of the forest. Only Alnus glutinosa recruitment was significantly related to climatic parameters, and Ulmus glabra related to forest openness, but there were no predictable patterns in recruitment among species in relation to these factors. Conclusion: The present study indicated that changes in large herbivore density have played an important role in driving patterns in tree recruitment and species composition during the last 70 years in Bialowieza National Park. In contrast to other studies, increasing herbivore numbers were associated with higher recruitment of preferred and browsing-tolerant species. Periodical crashes in ungulate numbers, whether human-induced or caused by natural factors, may offer windows of opportunity for regeneration of a range of tree species and facilitate more diverse and dynamic forest development.

First Seropositive Cases of Coxiella burnetii in Red Deer Populations in the Southwest Iberian Peninsula

The aim of this study was to evaluate the seroprevalence of Coxiella burnetii in different red deer populations and to investigate role of red deer densities, livestock, and habitat on seroprevalence. The serosurvey revealed 5 positive cases out of 137 sera (3.64%) that occurred in two of the three study areas. This study documents the first cases of Coxiella burnetii in red deer in the southwest Iberian peninsula. A relationship between deer density and Coxiella seroprevalence was not found. Results revealed that indirect transmission through ticks between livestock and red deer might be associated with higher prevalence. The timing of shelter area usage may influence the contact between ticks and red deer by favoring transmission. Coxiella burnetii in red deer may be associated with infertility or early abortions with reabsorption. Further research is needed to evaluate its epidemiology and effect on the disease dynamics of red deer in the southwest Iberian peninsula.