Red Cedar Research Articles

Western red cedar extractives associated with durability in ground contact

Western red cedar (WRC) is well known for its natural durability. However, the roles of all the extractives that may be associated with this durability are not fully understood. The literature primarily credits the thujaplicins, with a lesser role for the lignans; however, previous work has identified highly durable material with low thujaplicin content. To elucidate the relative importance of various extractives, the decay resistance of WRC stakes at four test sites was compared with data on the content of specific extractives to determine whether there was any detectable association. The concentration of plicatic acid, a lignan, was associated with the decay resistance of WRC lumber in ground contact. An unidentified, unquantified compound (B) appeared to be similarly associated with decay resistance. The thujaplicins were only weakly associated with the decay resistance of WRC in ground contact.

The Antimicrobial Properties of Cedar Leaf (Thuja plicata) Oil; A Safe and Efficient Decontamination Agent for Buildings

Cedar leaf oil (CLO), derived from the Western red cedar, Thuja plicata, was evaluated as a safe and acceptable broad spectrum antimicrobial agent, with a view to its potential applications in buildings, including the alleviation of sick building syndrome. Various Gram-positive and Gram-negative human bacteria, and two fungal organisms, all known to be common environmental sources of potential infection, were selected and tested quantitatively, and all of them were found to be susceptible to CLO liquid and vapor. Bacterial spores and Aspergillus niger were sensitive, although less so than the vegetative bacteria. Similar tests with cultured human lung cells showed that continuous exposure to CLO vapor for at least 60 minutes was not toxic to the cells. Based on these results, CLO shows promise as a prospective safe, green, broad-spectrum anti-microbial agent for decontamination of buildings.

Occupational asthma caused by IgE-mediated sensitization to multiple woods

Wood is a natural material that is able to trigger rhinitis and asthma in exposed subjects in occupational settings. This has been described with both soft and hard woods.1,2 Involvement of both low- and high-molecular-weight allergens has been reported, and the relevance of these is related with the wood type.1 There are cases where protein may be the responsible allergen. Crossreactivity between obeche and ramin woods3 and between obeche and latex4 has been shown. However, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a multiple IgE-mediated sensitization to different woods that caused occupational respiratory symptoms in the same worker.

Antifungal Activity of Organic Extracts from Juniperus virginiana Heartwood against Wood Decay Fungi

Easter red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) is a valuable source of heartwood extractives that provide decay resistance against termites and wood decay fungi. This study sought to determine the antifungal activity of heartwood extracts obtained using solvents with increasing polarity (hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and methanol) against two wood decay fungi. The heartwood was extracted with methanol, and the methanol extract was sequentially extracted with hexane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate. The yield of the methanol extractives was 5.26 percent based on dry wood and the percentages of the hexane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate soluble fractions from the methanol extract were 46.4, 8.3, and 28.7 percent, respectively. Hexane and chloroform soluble fractions showed a high inhibitory effect on the growth of the wood decay fungi Trametes versicolor and Gloeophyllum trabeum. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis identified skeletons of sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene alcohols in both extracts and the most abundant compounds identified, cedrol, cedrenes, and thujopsenes, were individually screened for antifungal activity. Among the three major sesquiterpenes, cedrol and thujopsene showed the highest inhibitory effects against G. trabeum and T. versicolor, respectively.

Low-Value Trees as Alternative Substrates in Greenhouse Production of Three Annual Species

Abstract Peat and perlite have served as industry standards in greenhouse substrates for over 50 years. The continued availability of peat, paralleled with its inert characteristics, as well as its ability to stay generally pathogen-free have all contributed to its success in the horticulture industry. Expanded perlite has long been used as an amendment in container mediums to provide air space to container substrates without adding to bulk density or affecting substrate pH and EC. However, due to increased restrictions on the harvesting of peat, as well as fluctuations in fuel prices necessary for shipping, the future availability of peat is a largely unknown factor in greenhouse production. Additionally, growers consider perlite to be a general nuisance due to the lung and eye irritation problems. Because of these problems, researchers have focused on identifying and evaluating possible alternatives to standard substrates. These studies evaluated three possible substrate alternatives for use in greenhouse production, including fresh sweetgum (SG), hickory (H), and eastern redcedar (RC), in addition to WholeTree (WT) substrate. Three greenhouse annual crops (petunia, impatiens, and vinca) were planted in varying ratios of these species mixed with peat. Plants grown with SG and H as amendments did not perform as well as a traditional peat:perlite mix with respect to flower number, growth indices, and plant dry weight. However, plants grown in RC tended to be equivalent to those grown in a traditional mix. Data showed that greenhouse producers could amend their standard greenhouse substrate with up to 50% eastern redcedar with little to no differences in plant growth.

Field Tests of Naturally Durable Species

Six wood species generally accepted to represent a range of natural durability were exposed in American Wood Protection Association (AWPA) E7-09 (ground-contact) and AWPA E25-08 (aboveground) decay tests at field sites located near Maple Ridge, British Columbia, and Petawawa, Ontario, in Canada and Gainesville, Florida, and Hilo, Hawaii, in the United States. Variables examined included comparisons of sapwood to heartwood, old growth to second growth, and effect of a protective coating. The tests began between October 2004 and February 2005. Results are reported after 5 years of exposure. Ground-contact decay rates were fastest at sites in Florida and Hawaii. Yellow cedar (Callitropsis nootkatensis (D. Don) Örsted), western red cedar (Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don), and eastern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis L.) had the highest condition ratings (least decay) for this measure after 5 years of exposure, followed by western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), and then tamarack (Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch). The aboveground decay rate was highest in Hawaii. For this measure, yellow cedar and western red cedar again had the highest average decay ratings (least decay) after 5 years of field exposure, followed by Douglas-fir, western larch, and tamarack. Eastern white cedar did not fit neatly into this pattern. It was durable at three of the four sites but failed rapidly in Hawaii. Sapwood appeared to have a larger impact on aboveground decay than on ground-contact decay. No substantial difference was found between old-growth and second-growth decay rates.

Propagation and Effects of the Pinewood Nematode on Calli of Various Plants

Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and its closely related species, B. mucronatus were successfully propagated well on calli of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and several pine species. Different propagation rates or different maximum populations were recorded. Most nematodes occurred in the outer layer of the callus, in which cells appeared to be dead. Tannin accumulated in the nematode- inoculated callus tissues. The correlation of the tannin content with the number of Many studies have been done on pine wilt disease caused by the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (STEINER and BUHRER) NICKLE. Several of these studies have focused on host resistance and on chemical components of the host that attract nematodes or promote their reproduction3' 15) as well as factors that inhibit invasion of host tissue3) or affect nematode mobilityn. FUTAI and FURUNO7 who inoculated the pinewood nematodes into young trees of 30 pine species, showed that resistance to the pinewood nematode varies among pine species. They correlated the differences in host resistance to taxonomic categories of pines (sensu CLITCHFIELD and LITTLE, 1966), but could not explain the cause of such differences. The mechanisms of pine wilt and host resistance have been studied by propagating B. xylophilus on tissue cultures of various plants. For example, TAMURA and MAMIYA13, 14) observed that B. xylophilus feeds and reproduces on the calli of Pinus densiflora and P. thunbergii, both of which are susceptible to pine wilt. TAMURA and DROPKINI1) propagated B. xylophilus on the callus of P. jeffreyi which is a resistant species to pine wilt. B. xylophilus has been propagated on calli of non-host plants such as alfalfa (Medicago sativa)12) and Japanese red cedar (Cryptomeria japonica). It is also well-known that B. xylophilus can be propagated on various fungi. These examples demonstrate the nematode's ability to feed and reproduce on various kinds of plant callus tissues and fungal cells. In the present study, the population buildup of B. xylophilus and that of non-pathogenic related species B. mucronatus were compared on calli of four pine species and alfalfa. In addition, the reproduction of B. xylophilus was also examined on calli of the F1 hybrid of P. thunbergii x P. massoniana and N. tabacum. Special consideration was also paid to the effect of nematode feeding and population buildup on callus responses, and to the way this relates to resistance shown in nursery trees. Tannin production in inoculated callus was also determined, which is known to be associated with host resistance to the pinewood nematode6). Nematode feeding and movement on callus cultures was also observed microscopically.

Regional climatic and North Atlantic Oscillation signatures in West Virginia red cedar over the past millennium

We describe a millennial length (~1500-yr) tree-ring chronology developed from West Virginia (WVA), USA red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) ring widths that is significantly correlated with local to regional temperature and precipitation for the region. Using ensemble methods of tree-ring standardization, above average ring widths are indicated for the period between ~1000 and 1300 CE, the approximate time of the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA), the most recent major warm episode prior to the modern era. The chronology then transitions to more negative overall growth persisting through much of the subsequent period known as the Little Ice Age (LIA). While WVA cedar growth levels during the MCA are broadly similar to the 20th century mean, the most positive values during the MCA are associated with RCS-standardized chronologies, which pseudoproxy tests reveal are likely biased artificially positive, warranting further investigation. This cedar record is significantly correlated with the NAO, due to the tendency for warmer, wetter conditions to occur in the eastern-central USA during the NAO's positive phase. These types of conditions are inferred for this cedar chronology during the MCA period, during which NAO reconstructions suggest a persistently-positive NAO state.

Cedar Infestation Impacts Avian Communities along the Niobrara River Valley, Nebraska

Habitat modification has the potential to cause changes in structure and composition of bird communities. Our goal was to determine the response of Songbird community composition to eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) removal in The Nature Conservancy's Niobrara Valley Preserve, Nebraska. We used point counts to survey birds in the riparian matrix of grassland and forest habitats. More than 60 species were recorded on surveys during 2004–2005. We also use the program PRESENCE to determine the response of five species to various habitat components, including cedar density: House Wren (Troglodytes aedon), Spotted Towhee (Pipilo maculates), Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus), Red‐eyed Vireo (Vireo olivaceus), and Indigo Bunting (Passerina cyanea). Species richness estimates were highest in open and mixed habitat patches. Local populations of Ovenbirds and Red‐eyed Vireos responded positively to cedar density, whereas House Wren numbers declined as cedar density increased. Cedar abundance explained the most variation in bird community similarity between survey points; species richness increased as cedar density decreased. Habitat structure and composition drove variation in community composition and population abundance at fine, local scales within the Preserve. Fine‐scale management to remove cedar from local areas should increase diversity of avian species by maintaining a matrix of habitat types. Cedar removal at any scale will affect the composition of bird communities, and we encourage a structured approach to management decisions.

Relationships between simulated water stress and mortality and growth rates in underplanted Toona ciliata Roem. in subtropical Argentinean plantations

Toona ciliata Roem. (Australian red cedar) requires a nurse-tree overstory to prevent damage from drought and irradiation in some regions of north-eastern Argentina. T. ciliata was planted in the understory of Pinus taeda L. (625 stems/ha), Pinus elliottii Engelm. × Pinus caribaea Morelet (625 stems/ha), and Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. (833 stems/ha) nurse trees, which were thinned to 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% of the initial densities. We measured initial T. ciliata mortality and growth as well as Leaf Area Index (LAI) based on light transmission. T. ciliata soil water availability and its effect on early growth and mortality were examined by modelling drought stress using the two-dimensional forest hydrology model ForWaDy. Simulated patterns in T. ciliata water stress for the different overstory treatments were consistent with observed patterns of mortality. Early mortality was lowest with a G. robusta overstory, with corresponding lowest drought stress values and high modelled soil water contents in the top soil layer in intermediate and high overstory densities. Mortality was highest with a P. elliottii × P. caribaea overstory in treatments with the highest modelled drought stress values in the most open treatments. The model supported our field observations by indicating that water stress was an important limitation to T. ciliata survival and growth on our study sites. The linkage between T. ciliata establishment success, early growth and soil water availability as indicated by ForWaDy, leads us to conclude that the model is a suitable stand management tool for guiding establishment of T. ciliata plantations.

The importance of an invasive tree fruit as a resource for mosquito larvae

Invasive plants are common and may provide resources through litter for container mosquito larvae. Invasive plant reproductive parts can make up a substantial part of litter but have mostly been ignored as a resource for mosquito larvae. We hypothesized that the reproductive fruits of the invasive eastern red cedar, Juniperus virginiana, provide high quality resources for the invasive, container mosquito Aedes albopictus at the western margin of its invasive range in North America. To test this hypothesis, we performed two laboratory experiments. The first examined the response of individual larvae of Ae. albopictus to different amounts of J. virginiana leaf (fresh and senesced) and J. virginiana fruit (ripe and unripe), as well as to a control leaf (Quercus virginiana, live oak). The second experiment examined the response of different densities of Ae. albopictus larvae to each litter type. We found significant differences in response by individual larvae to different amounts of litter and litter types. We also found J. virginiana litter components could support positive population growth rates as a function of initial larval density where the control leaf could not. We conclude that invasive plants may provide high quality resources, and that the reproductive parts (fruits, flowers, cones) may be an important and overlooked component in provisioning larval habitats. Therefore, the expansion of J. virginiana into grassland areas may contribute to the expansion of Ae. albopictus westward in North America.

Estimating the vulnerability of fifteen tree species under changing climate in Northwest North America

In the Pacific northwestern (PNW) region of North America, climatic conditions have significantly warmed since a predominantly cool phase of the Pacific North American circulation patterns between 1950 and 1975. What are the implications of this shift in climate for the vulnerability of native tree species? To address this question, we combined mechanistic and statistical models to assess where a variety of native tree species might be more vulnerable within their recorded ranges and where they might potentially migrate. For long-lived species that are well adapted to compete, seasonal differences in photosynthesis and water use offer insights helpful in predicting their distributions. To evaluate the general response of conifers to climatic variation across the region, we previously applied a process-based model (3-PG), to simulate the growth and maximum leaf area index that Douglas-fir could attain within recognized forested areas. We then constructed automated decision tree models to define and map the ecological distributions of 15 tree species based on differences in how photosynthesis was constrained by drought, daytime temperatures, high evaporative demand, and the frequency of frost. For the baseline climate period (1950–1975), the decision tree models predicted presence and absence of each species at ∼23,000 observations with an average accuracy of 81%, with an average kappa statistic of 0.74. In this paper the same models were run annually for the period between 1976 and 2006 for each species, and the areas defined as remaining suitable or becoming vulnerable to disturbance were identified based on whether more or less than half of the years fell within the originally defined limits. Based on these criteria, 70% of the species recorded ranges remained suitable, with 30% deemed vulnerable. Results varied notably by species with western red cedar and western hemlock remaining highly adapted, with potential for range expansion in area of up to 50% relative to the baseline period. In contrast, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, grand, and noble fir were classified as vulnerable with potential net contractions in their ranges. The analysis was extended through the rest of the 21st century using climatic projections from the Canadian global circulation model with a high fossil fuel emission scenario (A2) and compared to other previously published species range predictions.

Characteristics of a Novel Allergen of Samba Wood

RATIONALE: Characteristics of wood allergens that may cause respiratory allergic disease are not well known except for plicatic acid (red cedar) and a 36 kD allergen of samba wood (class I chitinase). The aim of this study was to further characterize and identify samba wood allergens and evaluate immunological responses in exposed subjects.

A Comparative Toxicity Assessment of Materials Used in Aquatic Construction

Comparative toxicity testing was performed on selected materials that may be used in aquatic construction projects. The tests were conducted on the following materials: (1) untreated wood species (hemlock [Tsuga ssp], Western red cedar (Thuja plicata), red oak [Quercus rubra], Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii], red pine [Pinus resinosa], and tamarack [Larix ssp]); (2) plastic wood; (3) Ecothermo wood hemlock stakes treated with preservatives (e.g., chromated copper arsenate [CCA], creosote, alkaline copper quaternary [ACQ], zinc naphthenate, copper naphthenate, and Lifetime Wood Treatment); (4) epoxy-coated steel; (5) hot-rolled steel; (6) zinc-coated steel; and (7) concrete. Those materials were used in acute lethality tests with rainbow trout, Daphnia magna, Vibrio fischeri and threespine stickleback. The results indicated the following general ranking of the materials (from the lowest to highest LC(50) values); ACQ > creosote > zinc naphthenate > copper naphthenate > CCA (treated at 22.4 kg/m(3)) > concrete > red pine > western red cedar > red oak > zinc-coated steel > epoxy-coated steel > CCA (6.4 kg/m(3)). Furthermore, the toxicity results indicated that plastic wood, certain untreated wood species (hemlock, tamarack, Douglas fir, and red oak), hot-rolled steel, Ecothermo wood, and wood treated with Lifetime Wood Treatment were generally nontoxic to the test species.

Tracks

Tracks A. P. Schroeder A sudden noiseis gone.The passage of the space betweentwo things. Nothing follows the thought of anabruptly opened door:In the full beam of the spotlightAn empty man. Between the temple and the temple,I am the diff erence, the same,between the temple and the templeof the identical priest who hangs suspended in the silenceof this wilderness. [End Page 35] Footnotes This poem originally appeared in Red Cedar Review, Vol. 6 Iss. 1, 1969. Copyright © 2011 Michigan State University Board of Trustees

The House and the Garden

The House and the Garden Susan Musgrave These days are treacherous—like cut vines and murderous rootsthe flowers in the gardengrow deliberately out of proportion.Insensitive, they are colorlessand don't leave any room for the grass. Trees uproot themselvessending hidden fingersto hide the sun. The stones are automatically bored. When I walk outsidedevils sit and guard the rabbit holes.The fence is indifferentand the vegetables never getenthusiastic about anything. I've given up simply tryingto understand. Small animals matebetween the walls of my house.I'm afraid it too will soondisappear—most of my neighborswish I would leave. [End Page 44] Because of themthere hasn't been any weatherfor over a year. I am such a sad young girland they are such horrible old men. [End Page 45] Footnotes This poem originally appeared in Red Cedar Review, Vol. 7 Iss. 1, 1970. Copyright © 2011 Michigan State University Board of Trustees

The Baker's Wife

The Baker's Wife Diane Wakoski She is tiny as a butter knifeand as if she were some dainty pastry, sheoften wears lace or hugs silvernext to her cheek.No children, but in the kitchen, a big red and blue Macaw,a living room full of yellow and blue parakeetswhich she claims all talk to her while she reads poetryand drinks coffee from a doll-sized cup. If I met her in the library, I'dnever think she were married to a doughman. And in fact if I saw her husband on the street,with his torso slim as a French baguette,and his long-fingered hands which don't seem like paddlesor even hooks, but more like thoseof a man on a tropical terrace drinking rum,I wouldn't guessthat either of them go fishingin the Rocky Mountains on their vacations,or that they avidly read a Star Trekfanzine. [End Page 128] Footnotes This poem originally appeared in Red Cedar Review, Vol. 33. Copyright © 2011 Michigan State University Board of Trustees

The Man with the Wicker Cigar

The Man with the Wicker Cigar George Hitchcock Observe him as he steps on the balconyto bless his squadrons of gasolinehe holds seven jewelled microphonesin his seven left handshis nostrils twitchlava pours from the studson his shirtfront below him a sea of bouquetseach with its head zippedin transparent green paperbursts into cheers his mouth is like a teller's wickethis eyes are of silk foulardhis teeth are certified winnershe is smoking a wicker cigar reassure yourselves declaresthis sweetsmelling popeof the flatlandsdeath is an illusion [End Page 36] Footnotes This poem originally appeared in Red Cedar Review, Vol. 6 Iss. 2, 1968. Copyright © 2011 Michigan State University Board of Trustees

Remaking Chant

Remaking Chant Steve Crowe for the Cherokee I am clean and dancing.Today, the first in a lifetime,I leave a rattlesnake's voicein the rocks, I frighten no one. But I still have fangs,poisonous or not, and an urgeto feel the warm ball of a field mousedissolving inside me the vibrations of rain drummingacross dry hills, the stretch of moistsunlight along my body.I will coil into a short nap, consider this spirit I am leaving,and maybe then I can abandon my brothers. [End Page 55] Footnotes This poem originally appeared in Red Cedar Review, Vol. 9 Iss. 1, 1974. Copyright © 2011 Michigan State University Board of Trustees

Silence

Silence Sue Saniel Elkind It is not an ordinary silence,it's an emptinessas if a fetus had been aborted.It's like a membrane surrounding me andI'm afraid my thoughts will scream through. It is the silence of winter,season of separationof falling snow. It is the silence of lossas when I saw my mother die too fast.When my father took too long to die.When my husband died. It is the kind of silence that criesthrough the house when the void is so greatI sleep on my husband's side of the bed.Let mine be the unused space. It is a silence that follows me always,a stream numb inside its own shell of ice.It is a cold clear nightand the sky is heavy with it and stars. [End Page 101] Footnotes This poem originally appeared in Red Cedar Review, Vol. 18 Iss. 1, 1986. Copyright © 2011 Michigan State University Board of Trustees