Red-billed Curassow Research Articles

Which is worse for the red-billed curassow: habitat loss or hunting pressure?

AbstractLarge ground-dwelling Neotropical gamebirds are highly threatened by habitat loss and hunting, but conservationists rarely attempt to distinguish between these two threats in the management of populations. We used three different types of species records to determine the status (i.e. persistence level) of the Endangered red-billed curassow Crax blumenbachii in 14 forest remnants in north-east Brazil, as either persistent, precarious or extirpated. We related these persistence levels to variables measured in a 2-km buffer radius, including variables associated with habitat quality (proportion of forest cover, length of rivers, patch density, distance from rivers) and hunting pressure (proportion of cacao agroforests and farmlands, length of roads, total area occupied by settlements, distance from roads and from settlements). Curassows were more persistent in forest patches located (1) more distant from settlements, (2) in landscapes with few settlements, (3) in landscapes with a high incidence of roads, (4) in a mosaic with a high proportion of forest, shaded cacao agroforest and farmland, and (5) more distant from other forest patches. Hunting pressure potentially exerts more influence on persistence than habitat quality: (1) hunting pressure submodels had a higher explanatory power than habitat quality submodels, (2) final models comprised four hunting pressure variables but only two habitat quality variables, and (3) hunting pressure variables appeared in all models whereas habitat quality variables appeared in only one final model. If hunting pressure is driving declines in curassows, regions with low human presence and a high proportion of forest cover are recommended for establishing new reserves.

SURVEYING POPULATIONS OF RED-BILLED CURASSOWS (CRAX BLUMENBACHII) IN THE ATLANTIC FOREST OF BRAZIL

Threatened species are frequently difficult to monitor, leading to a lack of information for the selection of the best conservation strategies. A case in point is the Red-billed Curassow (Crax blumenbachii, Cracidae, Galliformes), whose populations have declined due to deforestation of the northern Atlantic Forest and increased poaching in the late 1960s. The species is presently absent from most forest frag- ments within its geographic range, occurring only in forest remnants on the states of Bahia and Espírito Santo, Brazil. In this study, we esti- mated encounter rates and recorded the periods of activity of the Red-billed Curassow in three large Atlantic Forest fragments in the north- eastern Brazilian state of Bahia, using line-transect sampling. The northern region of Serra do Conduru State Park (0.29 sighting/10 km) and Descobrimento National Park (0.27 sighting/10 km) presented slightly greater encounter rates of this endangered cracid, compared to the Una Biological Reserve (0.13 – 0.20 sighting/10 km). We recorded Red-billed Curassows throughout the day, mainly between 10:00–11:00 h and 14:00–17:00 h. Our study is the first step for long-term monitoring of the Red-billed Curassow. These findings serve as baseline infor- mation, which may contribute to future assessments of the conservation status and support future conservation actions for the species.

Pupipara (Diptera, Hippoboscidae) in wild birds attended at a rehabilitation center in southern Brazil.

The hippoboscids are cosmopolitan permanent obligate hematophagous ectoparasites of birds, domestic and wild mammals and, occasionally, humans. Some species may act as vectors or hosts of etiological pathogenic agents. The aims of this study were to report on the first cases of Hippoboscidae in Crax blumenbachii and Parabuteo unicinctus; to provide new reports from Brazil on Tyto furcata and Asio stygius parasitized by Icosta americana; to report on individuals of Bubo virginianus, Falco sparverius and Accipiter striatus parasitized by genera Ornithoctona; and to provide new reports on parasitism of O. erythrocephala in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. The birds of prey and C. blumenbachii were attended at a rehabilitation center in Porto Alegre and at a veterinary hospital in Cruz Alta. These new records demonstrate the huge gap that exists regarding studies on avian ectoparasites and highlight potential vectors of hemoparasites for the bird species studied.

PERFIL DOS FRAGMENTOS DE MATA ATLÂNTICA COM REGISTROS DO MUTUM-DO-SUDESTE

Avaliar os efeitos das mudanças no uso da terra sobre a biodiversidade se tornou uma questão-chave para conservação das espécies. Para isso, é necessário analisar a configuração e composição da paisagem em que determinada espécie ocorre. O objetivo foi traçar um perfil dos remanescentes florestais de Mata Atlântica localizados no sul da Bahia que apresentam registros atuais e históricos de Crax blumenbachii. Analisaram-se quatorze áreas utilizando diferentes escalas espaciais (escala de mancha, 500 m, 1 e 2 km) para calcular a quilometragem total e a distância mais próxima de estradas e rios até a borda da mancha, porcentagem de área ocupada por: floresta, floresta com cabrucas, pastagem e agricultura; densidade de fragmentos e a proximidade desses fragmentos até a borda de cada mancha, a área ocupada por casas e a distância dessas até a borda da mancha. Selecionou-se a escala de 2 km por melhor descrever a configuração e composição da paisagem. Há dois perfis de áreas com registros de mutum: (1) áreas com paisagens mais florestadas, com mais rios e estradas, pouca pastagem/agricultura e casas próximas, e (2) áreas distantes de casas, com estradas e fragmentos florestais próximos. Estas são caracteristicas de áreas com registros recentes ou históricos de mutum, e não necessariamente refletem qualidade de habitat para a espécie.

Combining modeling tools to identify conservation priority areas: A case study of the last large-bodied avian frugivore in the Atlantic Forest

Applicability of modeling tools to tackle conservation problems is key for conservation planning. However, modeling papers regarding real-world conservation issues are scarce. Here, we combined two modeling tools to identify priority areas in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, focusing on the last large-bodied frugivorous bird in the region, the red-billed curassow (Crax blumenbachii). We used population viability analysis (PVA) to determine (1) the minimum viable population size under different hunting scenarios; and (2) the minimum critical forest patch size required to maintain viable populations. We used ecological niche modeling (ENM) to identify remnants that retain suitable environmental conditions to ensure the long-term persistence of this species. We overlapped the outputs from PVA and ENM models to identify priority areas for curassows. Under our best-case scenario, 56 individuals would suffice to maintain a viable population and 71 forest patches located within the species' known range are above the critical size of 3141 ha. In the worst-case scenario, at least 138 individuals would be required to maintain a viable population in forest patches larger than 9500 ha, corresponding to only 20 Atlantic Forest fragments within the species range. Among these, 17 presented median habitat suitability values higher than 0.70, eight of which were selected as priority areas for law enforcement and nine as priority areas for reintroduction. We encourage conservation biologists and land managers to combine modeling tools which can be guided by our conservation planning framework. This approach is promising to inform long-term conservation planning of a flagship species and its entire ecosystem.

Habitat selection by the endangered Red-billed Curassow (Crax blumenbachii) in an Atlantic forest remnant

ABSTRACTUnderstanding habitat selection is important for informing conservation management actions. However, many endangered species are data deficient, especially in tropical forests. Wild populations of the endangered Red-billed Curassow are one such data-deficient species. We investigated habitat selection by Red-billed Curassows in an important Atlantic forest remnant in Espírito Santo state, Brazil. We sampled vegetation plots to test fine-scale habitat associations and used GIS tools to identify landscape-scale variables that may influence curassow habitat use. We modelled the occurrence of Red-billed Curassows to test the contribution of these variables using hierarchical partitioning analysis in R. Abundance of standing dead trees, decaying log and leaf litter depth had a negative effect on the occurrence of Red-billed Curassows. The species preferred tall forests and abundant trees with diameter at breast height of 11–30 cm. Our results indicated that the Red-billed Curassow can utilise some secondary forest habitats, and suggest a preference for more open forest habitats that may facilitate terrestrial foraging. This is the first scientific examination of habitat requirements of Red-billed Curassows and our results will aid conservation activities by improving site selection for reintroduction efforts.

Predator-prey interaction between two threatened species in a Brazilian hotspot

Conflicts in conservation may arise if two or more threatened species are involved in prey-predator interaction. Predators may have a profound effect on small prey populations, thus conservation actions must consider inter-specific interactions involving threatened species. Here we report nest predation events on a wild population of the Endangered red-billed curassow Crax blumenbachii Spix, 1825 by a group of the Critically Endangered yellow-breasted capuchin monkeys Sapajus xanthosternosWied-Neuwied, 1820 in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. This is the first study to report egg predation of an threatened gamebird by an threatened primate. We recommend that systematic conservation planning for these threatened species consider interactions, especially considering upcoming reintroduction programs indicated in the National Action Plans for these species conservation.

Physiologic parameters in female Red-billed curassows (Crax blumenbachii) in rehabilitation

Abstract: The present paper reports blood gas analysis, hematologic and micro bacteriologic information on four female Red-billed curassows, rescued from illegal wild animal trading, that were undergoing habilitation for reintroduction into the wild through Projeto Centrofauna/Botucatu-SP. There is a lack of physiological data on this species, endemic to the region of Atlantic Forest (Mata Atlântica), now under threat of extinction. This lack of information makes the clinical evaluation of these birds very difficult and has a direct and adverse effect on any of these birds received for medical treatment in hospitals, veterinary clinics and centers for research and conservation, as well as in reintroduction centers.

Population size assessment of the Endangered red-billed curassowCrax blumenbachii: accounting for variation in detectability and sex-biased estimates

AbstractThe Endangered red-billed curassowCrax blumenbachiiis endemic to the lowland Atlantic Forest of Brazil and is extinct across most of its range as a result of habitat loss and hunting pressure. Global population estimates are unreliable as the species has never been surveyed systematically. During March 2012–February 2013 we used line transects to estimate the density and size of one of the most important populations, in the Vale Nature Reserve. UsingDistancewe estimated a density of 1.3 individuals per km2; results stratified by sex indicated a male-skewed sex ratio. Data collected from motion-activated cameras confirmed that the population was male skewed but to a lesser degree than suggested by transect data. Sex-specific behavioural responses to the presence of an observer probably contributed to the difference between camera and transect data. Using the camera-derived sex ratios we corrected transect estimates to 1.6 individuals per km2and a population of 325 individuals. Our systematic survey approach has revealed that Vale Nature Reserve has a larger population than previous estimates of the global population. We show that behavioural differences between the sexes in cryptic species can mislead population estimates, and we highlight the importance of motion-activated cameras as a tool for studying cryptic forest species.

Reintroducing the red-billed curassow in Brazil: Population viability analysis points to potential success

Reintroduction can be enhanced by data from long-term post-release monitoring, which allows for modeling opportunities such as population viability analysis (PVA). PVA-relevant data were gathered via long-term monitoring of reintroduced red-billed curassows at the Guapiacu Ecological Reserve (REGUA), located in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, over 25 months. In the present article, we (1) assess the robustness of the reintroduction plan, (2) evaluate the viability of the current reintroduced population, and (3) examine mitigation options to increase the viability of this population. VORTEX indicates that the initial plan, fully implemented, was likely to establish a viable population at REGUA. The current population is unviable; the best mitigation strategies are to eliminate hunting altogether, or at least reduce it by half, and to supplement ten immature pairs in 2015. A positive long-term outcome at REGUA is still possible; we encourage the Brazilian government and private stakeholders to consider population supplementation, both to achieve success at REGUA and to improve the evidence base for future reintroductions.

A suite of microsatellite markers for genetic management of captive cracids (Aves, Galliformes).

Cracids are medium to large frugivorous birds that are endemic to the Neotropics. Because of deforestation and overhunting, many species are threatened. The conservation of several species has relied on captive breeding and reintroduction in the wild, but captive populations may be inbred. Microsatellite tools can permit the construction of genetic pedigrees to reduce inbreeding, but only a few loci are available for this group of birds. Here, we present 10 novel polymorphic microsatellite loci and the cross-amplification of these and of 10 additional loci available in the literature in a panel of 5 cracid species, including 3 species with high conservation concern. We provide the first polymorphic loci for the jacutinga, Aburria jacutinga (N = 8), and red-billed curassow, Crax blumenbachii (N = 9), and additional loci for bare-faced curassow, C. fasciolata (N = 8), Alagoas curassow, Pauxi mitu (N = 5), and razor-billed curassow, P. tuberosa (N = 5). The average number of alleles was 2.9 for A. jacutinga, 2.7 for C. blumenbachii, 3.5 for C. fasciolata, 2.6 for P. mitu, and 5.7 for P. tuberosa. The mean expected heterozygosities were 0.42, 0.40, 0.48, 0.37, and 0.59, respectively. The average probabilities that the set of loci would not exclude a pair of parents of an arbitrary offspring were 2.9% in A. jacutinga, 1% in C. blumenbachii, 0.5% in C. fasciolata, 0.4% in P. mitu, and 0.002% in P. tuberosa suggesting that these loci may be adequate for parentage analysis and to implement ex situ genetic management plans.

SEROLOGIC, PARASITIC, AND BACTERIOLOGIC ASSESSMENT OF CAPTIVE CRACIDS (AVES: GALLIFORMES: CRACIDAE) IN BRAZIL

Captive cracids (Aves: Galliformes: Cracidae), including endangered species, were studied (n = 130) for the assessment of health status, including Aburria jacutinga (black-fronted piping-guan, n = 42), Crax blumenbachii (red-knobbed curassow, n = 54), Craxfasciolata (bare-faced curassow, n = 28), and Penelope obscura (dusky-legged guan, n = 6). The exposure to Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG), Mycoplasma synoviae (MS), Salmonella pullorum (SP), Salmonella gallinarum (SG), avian paramyxovirus-1 (APMV-1), and infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) were determined by serology, and SG and SP also were evaluated by culture. Ectoparasites and endoparasites were identified using light microscopy. Sera were negative by the hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test for antibodies to MG or MS, although serum was reactive to MG (32%, 42/130) by the rapid serum agglutination test (SAT). Although positive reactions (26.9%, 35/130) for SP and SG were detected by SAT, cloacal swab cultures were negative for SP and SG. IBDV antibodies were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in two dusky-legged guans (1.5%, 2/130). HI antibody titers to APMV-1 were found in 20 (15.3%) cracids, with titers ranging from 16 to 1,024. Fifty percent of birds (65/130) had ectoparasites. Lice (Menacanthus spp.) and mites (Astigmata: Analgesidae, Megninidae; Megninia spp.) were found in red-knobbed curassow; Megninia spp. also were found in bare-faced curassow, black-fronted piping-guan, and dusky-legged guan. Eleven black-fronted piping-guans presented dual parasitism by Megninia spp. and Ornithonyssus spp. Endoparasites were detected in 16.1% (21/130) of birds, and some with multiple parasites. Oocysts of coccidia and eggs of Capillaria spp. (Nematoda: Trichuroidea) were found in the feces of red-knobbed curassow. Eggs of Strongyloides spp. were found in the feces of bare-faced curassow, and eggs of Ascaridia spp., Capillaria spp., and Strongyloides spp. were found in black-fronted piping-guan. Cysts of Blastocystis spp. were found in dusky-legged guan. Antibodies to IBDV and APMV-1 indicate previous exposure. However, considering that birds were clinically normal, immune stimulation might have been from live chicken vaccine strain infections that are widely used in Brazilian poultry. The high parasitism levels indicate that a routine inspection for internal and external parasites is warranted.

The Red-Billed Curassow (Crax blumenbachii): Social Organization, and Daily Activity Patterns

We studied the Red-billed Currasow (Crax blumenbachii) in Vale Natural Reserve, Linhares, Espírito Santo State, Brazil, using camera traps. We found the Red-billed Curassow present in the entire area of the reserve (∼ 22,000 ha) during 40 months of camera trapping (2005–2008). Most records were of single individuals, especially males, but pairs and even groups of individuals were also recorded. Males were paired with one and two females, suggesting polygyny in the species. The species was recorded throughout the day with one peak from 0500 to 0600 hrs and another after 1600 hrs. The daily activity pattern was similar for males and females. The number and widespread nature of the records suggests the local population of this species may be higher than previously thought.

Reintroduction as a conservation tool for threatened Galliformes: the Red-billed Curassow Crax blumenbachii case study from Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil

Seventy-three of the 280 species of Galliformes are at risk of extinction, and all of them are threatened by human factors (mainly hunting and deforestation). Reintroduction is increasingly proposed as a conservation measure, although there is limited post-release monitoring to determine success. The science of reintroduction biology is still in its infancy in Brazil, mainly because most of the projects involving release of animals seldom include post-release monitoring, data collected are not published, and release areas are frequently chosen without any criteria. The Red-billed Curassow Crax blumenbachii reintroduction program in Brazil can be considered a good model for developing future Brazilian reintroduction projects. Systematic radio-tracking of released Red-billed Curassows has allowed detailed information on the ecology and behavior of the species. The information obtained through post-release monitoring will guide future management of the species, and it is a good example of the use of reintroduction as a conservation tool for threatened Galliformes.

Using post-release monitoring data to optimize avian reintroduction programs: a 2-year case study from the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest

Post-release monitoring data of reintroduced captive-bred birds can be utilized to help optimize future avian reintroduction programs. We present a case study of broad interest to reintroduction and conservation biologists interested in investigating movements and habitat use by reintroduced captive-bred birds. We used radio telemetry to monitor reintroduced captive-bred red-billed curassow Crax blumenbachii at a private reserve, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil. During August 2006 and October 2008, 25 radio-tagged individuals (15 females and 10 males, all <30 months old) were monitored over a 25-month period. Evaluation of home-range size and habitat use revealed that captive-bred curassows should be released only into forest areas with adequate riverine habitat that are larger than the minimum home-range movements of the proposed population. Curassows also utilized pastureland, cultivated areas and secondary forests, suggesting that the proximity of release sites to such habitats may not be entirely detrimental for future reintroductions. Site fidelity for reintroduced birds was low, and there was a tendency for resident curassows to move away when new cohorts were released into the area. Determining how habitat characteristics, displacement by newly released cohorts, adjustments to their new surroundings or cohort social interactions influence post-release movements of resident birds at release sites over prolonged time frames would improve our knowledge on the impacts of releasing further captive-bred individuals into habitats with extant populations. Critically, the movement patterns of reintroduced curassows identified in this study demonstrate that avian post-release monitoring must be considered over an appropriate time frame and we highlight how different conclusions may be generated depending on the duration of post-release monitoring. It may take more than 2 years for reintroduced captive-bred sub-adults to become established following release and that post-release monitoring of similar duration may not be adequate for large avian species such as Cracids.

Modelling post-release survival of reintroduced Red-billed Curassows Crax blumenbachii

Modelling post-release survival probabilities of reintroduced birds can help inform ‘soft-release’ strategies for avian reintroductions that use captive-bred individuals. We used post-release radiotelemetry data to estimate the survival probabilities of reintroduced captive-bred Red-billed Curassow Crax blumenbachii, a globally threatened Cracid endemic to the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest. Between August 2006 and December 2008, 46 radiotagged Curassows from the Crax Brazil breeding centre were reintroduced to the Guapiaçu Ecological Reserve (REGUA), Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil, in seven different cohorts. Reintroduced birds were most vulnerable during the first 12 months post-release from natural predation, domestic dogs and hunting. Annual post-release survival probability was high (75%) compared with published estimates for other Galliform species. However, when considering survival in all birds transported to REGUA (some birds died before release or were retained in captivity) and not only post-release survival, ϕ in this study was closer to estimates for other species (60%). The duration of the pre-release acclimatization period within the soft-release enclosure and the size of the released cohorts both positively influenced post-release survival of reintroduced Curassows. Our results are relevant to future Cracid reintroductions and highlight the importance of utilizing post-release monitoring data for evidence-based improvements to soft-release strategies that can significantly enhance the post-release survival of captive-bred birds.

Selection of radio transmitter and attachment method for post-release monitoring of captive-bred reintroduced Red-billed Curassow Crax blumenbachii, Brazil

Long-term monitoring of reintroduced individuals is a central component of many endangered species reintroduction programs. Radio-telemetry techniques are rarely used to monitor reintroduced captive-bred Cracids and few data exist regarding possible adverse effects of radio-tagging Cracids. In this study, we identify an appropriate radio transmitter design and develop a suitable attachment method that minimizes anthropogenic influence and enables long-term, post-release monitoring (2–3 years) of reintroduced captive-bred Red-billed Curassows in the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest. We also review studies about the effects of different VHF radio transmitter models on survival, reproduction, behavior, and physiology of Galliformes.

Aves de um fragmento de Mata Atlântica no alto Rio Doce, Minas Gerais: colonização e extinção

Foi conduzido um levantamento de espécies de aves em um fragmento florestal no alto Rio Doce de abril de 2002 a novembro de 2004. A região está inserida numa das áreas prioritárias para conservação da biodiversidade do Brasil, a Mata Atlântica. O fragmento está dentro da 'Estação de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Ambiental de Peti' (EPDA-Peti) e cerca uma represa de uma usina hidroelétrica das 'Companhia Energética de Minas Gerais'. O fragmento possui 605 ha de mata secundária semidecídua em vários estágios de regeneração. O método utilizado foi o de observação direta ao longo de 'transectos', captura com redes, pontos de escuta e identificação a partir do uso de vocalizações. Foram registradas 231 espécies de aves pertencentes a 57 famílias. Isso corresponde cerca de 33% das 682 espécies já registradas para o bioma da Mata Atlântica. Constam nesta lista 33 espécies endêmicas da Mata Atlântica e uma endêmica do Cerrado. Cinco espécies são ameaçadas em Minas Gerais e uma espécie ameaçada de extinção global, o mutum do sudeste Crax blumenbachii Spix, 1825 (Cracidae). Foram encontradas 35 novas espécies em relação ao levantamento de 1989, bem como a extinção local de outras 52 espécies. O fragmento florestal da EPDA-Peti abriga uma porção significativa da avifauna da Mata Atlântica, e monitoramento de longo prazo irá revelar aspectos importantes para compreensão dos mecanismos de extinção e colonização na Mata Atlântica.

Breeding and hand‐rearing the Red‐billed curassow: at Rio de Janeiro Zoo

International Zoo YearbookVolume 24, Issue 1 p. 244-247 Breeding and hand-rearing the Red-billed curassow: at Rio de Janeiro Zoo CARMEN LUCIA DA SILVEIRA, CARMEN LUCIA DA SILVEIRA Biologist, Zoological Garden of Rio de Janeiro, Quinta da Boa Vista s/no, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, CEP 20940Search for more papers by this authorJOSE ALBERTO PAIS, JOSE ALBERTO PAIS Biologist, Estrada dos Tres Rios 860JI01, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, CEP 22700, BrazilSearch for more papers by this author CARMEN LUCIA DA SILVEIRA, CARMEN LUCIA DA SILVEIRA Biologist, Zoological Garden of Rio de Janeiro, Quinta da Boa Vista s/no, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, CEP 20940Search for more papers by this authorJOSE ALBERTO PAIS, JOSE ALBERTO PAIS Biologist, Estrada dos Tres Rios 860JI01, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, CEP 22700, BrazilSearch for more papers by this author First published: January 1986 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.1985.tb02547.xCitations: 1AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume24, Issue1Special Issue: Including volume 25January 1986Pages 244-247 RelatedInformation

The Red-billed Curassow

The red-billed curassow, or mutum, Crax blumbachii formerly occurred from southern Bahia to Rio de Janeiro in south-east Brazil, although only a few specimens were ever obtained. Europeans settled this region early, and it was feared that hunting pressure and, later, habitat destruction had brought the species to the verge of extinction when in 1970 Sick discovered a population about 60 km north of Linhares, Espirito Santo, in and near what is now the Reserva de Sooretama. This forest reserve is now the only place where the bird is known. A few may survive in relict forest tracts in southern Bahia, although the last record, a specimen, was collected in 1944. The specimen from eastern Bolivia which Gyldenstolpe assigned to this species was certainly a variant of C. globulosa. On a recent trip to Brazil we found that almost all the forest in north-east Espirito Santo, where this curassow formerly occurred, had been cleared, much of it within the year. Dr Augusto Ruschi (pers. comm.) confirms that the rate of forest destruction, mainly for charcoal, has accelerated markedly in the past decade. The main sources for information on the species are Prince Maximilian of Wied and Sick.