Red Army Research Articles

Частное коллекционирование в СССР и новая советская элита

The article is devoted to the phenomenon of private collecting in Soviet Russia. The author proceeds from the fact that the formation of the Soviet system, which led to certain changes in the social structure of society, led to the emergence of a new Soviet elite, not alien to collecting. Restrictions of a political and ideological nature imposed on any form of commercial activity and the almost closed art market predeter-mined the uniqueness of private Soviet collecting: ways of folding collections, the possibility of their preser-vation, exchange, fate, etc. The proposed typology of collectors of the Soviet period depends on the financial possibilities, the goals of collecting art objects, the aesthetic and cultural level, as well as the socio-cultural environment where collecting was carried out. In total, six conditional types of Soviet collectors were identified, among them the scientific and creative intelligentsia, Red Army officers, veterans of the Soviet special services, the state party elite, the “former” - the remaining representatives of the nobility in the country. The historical facts testifying to the complex relationship between private collectors and the Soviet state based on the command and administrative economic system are given. Many archival materials and documents have not revealed yet, which makes it difficult to study some aspects of private collecting of the Soviet era. The study of private collections and methods of collecting is the most important material source for studying the history of the country.

Minnediplomati i grenseland. De russisk-norske patriotiske minneturene 2011–2019

This article traces the development and narrative staging in Russian media of the so-called Russian-Norwegian patriotic memory tours that took place from 2011 to 2019 to celebrate a heroic story of WWII Red Army soldiers and Norwegian partisans in Soviet intelligence service. The article concludes that the tours were initiated by Russian state and state-affiliated actors who exported military-patriotic symbols and perspectives across the border to Norway, and actively promoted several intertwined narratives; about joint Russian-Norwegian heroic war history; about historically peaceful relations in the North between Norway and Russia; and about Norway as a friendly Nato-member neighbor that rightfully honors the memory of the Soviet army and its crucial role in the victory over Nazi Germany. After Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014, these narratives were supplemented by Russian claims about a contemporary fascist threat spreading from Ukraine and the Baltics. The statements emphasized the acute importance of the patriotic memory tours to resist allegedly growing neo-fascism in today’s Europe. The article argues that the narrative staging of the tours must be read in the context of the Kremlin’s ongoing memory wars with former Soviet republics and Eastern bloc states and Russia’s military aggression in Ukraine since 2014.

German Colonists of Northwest Russia in Conditions of Post-Revolutionary Reality (1918-1922)

The focus of this publication is on the history of the German village of the North-West of the RSFSR in the first post-revolutionary years (1918—1922). The economic and political life of the German rural population is characterized, including the resolution of land issues, economic activities, requisition policies of the Bolshevik leadership towards them, as well as the formation and functioning of Soviet and party bodies in areas with high concentrations of Germans. The condition and functioning of German farms largely depended on the extraordinary revolutionary economic measures carried out by the Bolsheviks within the framework of equalizing land use and “war communism”, where the German village was considered as an easily accessible and high-performance source of agricultural resources for the Red Army and the urban population, which resulted in an excessively high economic burden on the colonies and a selective approach to accounting for national the specifics of the economic life of the Germans and their current economic opportunities. German peasants mostly negatively perceived post-revolutionary innovations, and service in Soviet and party bodies was used as a tool to protect and promote their personal economic interests and to protect them from possible repressive measures.

红军长征过云南的时代价值及深远影响研究

During the Long March, two of the three main forces of the Red Army passed through Yunnan on the Long March. In 1935, the main force of the Central Red Army passed through Yunnan. In 1936, the Long March of the Red Second and Sixth Army passed through Yunnan. The Red Army marched through Yunnan, leaving behind rich historical deeds such as the Zhaxi Conference, feigning Kunming, skillfully crossing the Jinsha River, and circling Wumeng. The great Long March spirit embodied by the Red Army’s Long March across Yunnan is Yunnan’s precious spiritual wealth and an inexhaustible spiritual source for the “New Long March” in Yunnan. Its value of the times is reflected in. It is conducive to Yunnan to carry forward the “Three Musts” in the new era, keep in mind the original mission, be modest and prudent, work hard, and carry forward the spirit of daring to fight and being good at fighting; It is conducive to Yunnan to keep in mind the “Two Answers” and adhere to the mass line; It is conducive to the continuous promotion of the “Two Combinations” in Yunnan, and the combination of the basic principles of Marxism with the specific reality and the excellent traditional Chinese culture on the road of the “New Long March”, and strive to build a demonstration zone for national unity and progress, refine the work style of cadres, improve work efficiency, and promote the high-quality leapfrog development of Yunnan.

The Polish-Russian ‘monument war’ in the context of the Law and Justice’s historical policy

The article addresses the issue of the influence of historical conditions on Polish-Russian relations on the threshold of the 21st century. After the collapse of the communist system in Poland in 1989, the new political elites, guiding the process of democratic transition in the Third Republic of Poland, made efforts to settle the disputed threads of common Polish-Russian history. One of the sources of conflict in terms of the historical burdens was case the removal by Poland of monuments to Red Army soldiers who died on Polish soil. This problem has become an important antagonistic element in bilateral relations, leading to the outbreak of a Polish-Russian 'monument war'. To a large extend, the disputes over Soviet monuments dominated discussions in the Polish-Russian relations, creating another field of conflict on the historical level.

Воєнні та військові злочини в кримінальному законодавстві Російської імперії, РРФСР та Російської Федерації: теорія і безпосередня практика

The qualification of military and war crimes in the legislation of the Tsardom of Muscovy, the Russian Empire, the RSFSR and modern Russia is considered. A conclusion about the primacy of military expediency over considerations of universal morality and humanism is made. Thus, the legislation of the Tsardom of Muscovy foresaw the possibility of turning the so-called boyar children (the younger layer of the boyars), suspended by the tsar from service, into kholops (serfs). The military legislation of Peter I does not distinguish between the suicide of a soldier and treason. The military reform of Alexander II, carried out by Minister Milyutin, somewhat liberalized military legislation and created a clear system of military courts. The refusal of the Provisional Government to use the death penalty disorganized the Russian army, and this was considered by the Bolsheviks while creating the Red Guards and the Red Army. During the civil war, the Bolshevik headship even used decimation regarding the Red Army men. After the end of hostilities, military crimes (Criminal Code of the RSFSR of 1922) were generally punished more mildly, but the tightening of the screws in the direction of repression’s increase began almost immediately. These processes reached their apogee during the Second World War when the widest range of cases was handed over to military tribunals. In the Criminal Code of the RSFSR of 1960, the number of military crimes doubled, and the sanction became as severe as possible (up to the death penalty). The concept of a war crime is first mentioned in Article 67.1. The use of biological weapons, but it was introduced into the Code by the Law of the Russian Federation, dated 29.04.1993. The criminal code of the modern Russian Federation includes both military and war crimes, the sanctions are severe, but thesein no way restrain the Russian army, Rosgvardiya (National Guard of Russia), and paramilitary formations during a full-scale war against Ukraine. The world has witnessed numerous crimes against the civilian population, prisoners of war, and the environment (the blowing up of the Kakhovka HPP).

Самоотверженный труд советского крестьянства в годы Великой Отечественной войны (1941–1945 гг.)

The article discusses the selfless feat of Soviet peasants in providing the front and the population with food and agricultural raw materials. It turned out that overnight food and agricultural raw materials became a strategic commodity for the population of the USSR and the Red Army, the front relied on their timely supply Legal documents are considered: Order of the People’s Commissariat of Trade of the USSR No. 275 of July 16, 1941; order of the Ministry of Trade of the Moscow City Executive Committee on the introduction of cards for some food and industrial goods in Moscow. July 16, 1941, No. 289; resolution of the Leningrad Regional Executive Committee of July 17, 1941, No. 66; resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, Central Committee of the CPSU(b) of December 14, 1947, No. 4004. It turned out that in difficult conditions, every extra kilogram of bread in excess of the norm (plan) was given at a huge cost to the enormous loads that fell on agricultural workers. It is noteworthy that due to the shortage of able-bodied population, child labor was used everywhere, there was a special shortage of specialists: drivers; combine harvesters; tractor drivers; livestock breeders. It turned out that the main and obvious result of the peasants’ labor during the war was the uninterrupted supply of food to the army. Despite all the losses and difficulties, the Soviet people managed to concentrate the necessary amount of resources and products in the hands of the state and provide for all basic needs.

Kazakh Muslims in the Red Army, 1939–1945 , by Allen J. Frank

Kazakh Muslims in the Red Army, 1939–1945 , by Allen J. Frank

The Contribution of Soviet Military Scientists to the Development of Industrial Technologies for the Production of the First Domestic Antibiotics (Penicillin and Streptomycin)

In the domestic literature, the industrial production of penicillin and streptomycin is commonly attributed to the representatives of civil institutions and enterprises. However, the key role of military scientists in solving this problem remains in the background. The purpose of this article is to summarize the available facts about the role of Soviet military scientists in creating a technology for obtaining the first antibiotics in the USSR. At the beginning of 1942, all the works, related to the penicillin in the Soviet Union, was headed by academician of AMS USSR Z. V. Ermolyeva. At the first stage of the research, the technology for obtaining penicillin was applied, based on the use of a surface method of growing cultures of the antibiotic-producing fungus in mattresses. But this method could not meet the country's needs for the drug. In early 1944, the Soviet government tasked the Research Institute of Epidemiology and Hygiene of the Red Army (NIIEG) in Kirov (now a branch of the Federal State Budgetary Institution «48th Central Research Institute» of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation) to solve the case of mass production of penicillin and streptomycin. In 1944–1945 for the first time in the USSR military specialists from NIIEG developed a technology for the industrial production of penicillin by the deep method with aeration. The deep cultivation was carried out in cultivator devices designed by engineer-Lieutenant Colonel A. V. Krutyakov. During the research, a fungus strain (Penicillium chrysogenum 23248) was selected from a large number of studied strains, the use of which provided the highest yields of penicillin, and the most effective cultivation conditions were selected. The experience, obtained by the Soviet military specialists during the development of the technology for the deep production of penicillin, served in 1946-1947 as the basis for the creation of the method for obtaining domestic streptomycin from the domestic Streptomyces griseus. In 1947, for the first time in the world an employee of the NIIEG Lieutenant Colonel of medical service N. I. Nikolaev and civil doctors D. D. Fedorinov and V. I. Gorokhov used the NIIEG streptomycin successfully for the treatment of patients with pneumonic plague during the plague epidemic in Manchuria. In the late 1940s the technologies for the production of penicillin and streptomycin, as well as the relevant documentation, were transferred to civil healthcare institutions for the industrial development.

Repatriation Of American Prisoners of War and Interned Civilians Liberated from German Captivity by the Red Army

Abstract The article discusses the organization and process of repatriation of American prisoners of war and interned civilians liberated from German captivity by the Red Army. It presents legal grounds of repatriation, the adopted principles of arranging the repatriation process, the territorial network of komendanturas and camps where the liberated citizens were kept, the living, medical and sanitary conditions in the mentioned units, the evacuation routes, the means of transport, the number of the repatriated, the rules of the work of teams of contact officers. A detailed analysis of the above-mentioned issues reveals the complicated and tense relations between the United States and the Soviet Union in the final years of World War II. It also perfectly illustrates the attitude of the USSR towards the American ally, which was characterized by failure to follow agreements, disregarding the requests and petitions from US representatives, and delaying a lot of shared actions.

“Mis on möödas ega see ei kordu…” Kurt Eiskopi kirjad Edith Eiskopile aastaist 1940–1941 kui ajalootunnistaja tunnistus

This article examines the letters of a young Estonian man, Kurt Eiskop (1919–1944), to his beloved and future wife, Edith Eiskop (1919–1991). Kurt Eiskop’s 55 letters were handed over to the Estonian Cultural History Archives in 2022, as a result of the collection campaign “Letters in my life”, a competition organised cooperatively by the Estonian Life Stories Association and the archives. Most of the letters were written between 16 April 1940 and 29 June 1941, while Eiskop was doing his military service in the army of the Estonian Republic. In this article I consider his letters as a testimony of a historical witness, based on what he saw and experienced during the arrival of the Red Army forces in the Estonian Republic in June 1940 and its subsequent annexation. What interests me in Eiskop’s letters as testimony is, first and foremost, the author’s subjective experience, which can be seen in the way emotions are expressed in his letters. As is characteristic of love letters, the main topic of Eiskop’s letters is emotions – longing for the beloved and nostalgia for life before the army. In retrospect, the latter seems like a paradisaical idyll to him, while the present reality seems like being in prison. In addition to the expression of emotions, the subjective experience of the writer emerges in the letters through descriptions of everyday life in the army, which also contain the author’s thoughts, moods, and attitudes toward the new regime. It emerges from Eiskop’s letters that service in the army of the Estonian Republic was disagreeable to him, as it separated him from his beloved and impeded their beginning a life together. The arrival of reinforcements of the Red Army in the Estonian Republic in June 1940 put the Estonian Army and those performing their military service there in a complicated situation: they had to get used to alienating new circumstances and rules; likewise there were fears that the war would spread to the Estonian territory and that soldiers would be sent to fight the war for the Soviet Union. In a politically complicated time, which also entailed complications for personal life, writing letters provided support and a way of sustaining relationship despite being apart. The letters Eiskop wrote to his beloved during his military service became a kind of refuge for him, a safe world, the creation of which was enabled by nostalgic memories. These are poeticised and idealised images of the past which provide comfort and strength, while intensifying his closeness to the addressee. It is interesting that in Eiskop’s letters nostalgia is not always unidirectionally aimed at the past, but some memories are bound to the author’s hopes and plans for the future. However, nostalgia is not the only emotion that Eiskop expresses in his moments of solitude. Eiskop’s letters are also filled with longing for the beloved, expressed by the author in bursts of emotion, sometimes more controlled, sometimes more expressive, in some letters also as desperation.

Lidelse og frigjøring: TV som minneaktør i 70- og 75-årsmarkeringene av den siste krigsvinteren i Nord-Norge

In this article, I compare two tv-programs about the ending of WWII in northern Norway, aired by the Norwegian Public Broadcaster (NRK). The first one was sent from Tromsø October 31st 2014, with the title, “The Autumn they lost everything,” and marked the 70 years anniversary of the forced evacuation of the people, as almost all houses in Finnmark and Northern Troms were burnt down when the Nazis retreated from the area after being defeated by the Red Army. The second was aired from Kirkenes five years later, in 2019, marking the 75 years anniversary. The title was “Saved by the Russians,” as the celebration of the heroism of the soldiers and the relationship between Russia and Norway were the main topics.The structure of the analysis concentrates on three aspects of the programs. First, I look at the ways tv-resources are being used in each of them, focusing on the host style and the aesthetics of the live studio. Secondly, I show how the programs express a northern identity by addressing critical perspectives on the main national story of WWII and the lack of support from Norwegian authorities for the people in the north during the autumn and winter of 1944/45. The third aspect concerns the ways memories of the war are being connected to contemporary issues. In 2014 this is the refugee situation in Europe, whereas the program in 2019 discusses the value of memory culture in relation to political controversies about Norway’s defence strategy in the north vis á vis Russia. By following these three aspects of the tv-programs, the analysis sheds light on their functions as memory agents situated in a particular media context, in which the regional perspective on WWII is being negotiated within the framework of national public television.

Grigory Alexandrovich Pushkin — an Employee of the State Library of the USSR Named after V.I. Lenin

The biography of Colonel Grigory Alexandrovich Pushkin (1868—1940), grandson of Alexander Pushkin, is reconstructed on the basis of unknown materials of the Manuscripts Department and the Archive of the Russian State Library (RSL). The article told about his service in the Imperial and Red Armies, his family and difficult financial situation after 1917. It is shown what bureaucratic difficulties accompanied the assignment of his personal pension in 1923 and subsequent assistance. Particular attention is paid to the solution of the housing problem and obtaining accommodation in Moscow.The Letters of G.A. Pushkin to G.P. Georgievsky (1919), V.D. Bonch-Bruevich (1933) and P.S. Popov (1933), are published in full for the first time, as well as letters from Yu.N. Pushkina to V.S. Nechaeva (1936) and from V.D. Bonch-Bruevich to G.A. Pushkin (1933), which are kept in the Manuscript Department of Russian State Library.Article restores the history of G.A. Pushkinʼs working at the State Library of the USSR named after V.I. Lenin based on the Personnel Files. From 1936 till 1938 he signed temporary employment contracts, while he worked on a permanent position only from January 1939 to January 1940.G.A. Pushkin’s biography is analyzed in the context of the social history of the Russian nobility after 1917 and its adaptation to the Soviet reality. The author concludes that the official persecution of the former elite promoted the appearance of the staff with wide knowledge, proficiency in foreign languages and organizational experience in the State Library of the USSR named after V.I. Lenin. They influenced the development of the library as a research center.

Art and history go hand in hand: the evolution of Chinese national vocal music from the Yan'an period to reform and opening up

The Yan'an area was an important base for China's revolution. It was also in Yan'an that the Chinese Communist Party brought a lot of political and theoretical knowledge to the local people and created a lot of artistic forms, one of which was vocal music. Driven by the "Red Gene," the work of the Red Army in the Yan'an area became smoother, and they communicated with the local people on a spiritual level through vocal works. In the past 40 years of reform and opening up, the development of the times and social changes, the public aesthetic concept has also quietly developed and changed, which has had a great impact on the development of national vocal music: the creation of a large number of excellent national vocal works to glorify the new era; the performance of both the traditional singing bright and sweet and Western Bel canto singing transparent and round. In terms of education, a large number of national vocal educators such as Jin Tielin, Zou Wenqin, Ma Qiuhua, etc. They have established a perfect education and training system and complete singing skills. This Paper discusses the development of national vocal music and analyzes the important breakthroughs and achievements in the field of national vocal music in three stages, and composes the characteristics of national vocal music development itself, and analyzes and researches the various factors affecting it, so that we can think of danger in peace and create glory again.

Exploring factors and implications of violence against civilians: a case study of the Soviet-Afghan war

ABSTRACT The Soviet-Afghan War serves as a significant case study to understand why states resort to violent acts against civilians during war. This study takes a multidimensional approach, examining strategic, operational, and individual factors and applying theories of violence and mass killing. By analyzing the conditions that led the Soviets to target civilians, this investigation identifies a nexus of interconnected factors. At the strategic level, Soviet leaders pursued a swift victory to establish a Communist client regime while minimizing casualties and controlling information flow. Operationally, the ill-preparedness of the Red Army for counterinsurgency warfare, coupled with an entrenched organizational culture, led to the adoption of counterproductive enemy-centric tactics against Afghan noncombatants. Additionally, inadequate training, prolonged deployments, and a lack of disciplinary measures at the individual level contributed to the perpetration of violent acts. Understanding the underlying causes of violence against civilians, particularly in the context of Russian forces, holds practical importance. This knowledge can assist policymakers in devising strategies that mitigate wartime violence and enhance the protection of citizens. Drawing parallels to contemporary conflicts involving Russia, the study concludes by recommending future research directions and emphasizing the relevance of comprehending the targeting of noncombatants in ongoing conflicts, notably the Russian-Ukrainian conflict.

The Polish-Soviet War in the Norwegian Press of the Years 1920-1921

Summary: Observers of the Polish-Soviet war of the years 1919-1921 considered it the most significant conflict since the end of WWI. It was common knowledge then that the conflict in question had a considerable influence on the situation of the Mid- and West European states. It was expected that, should the Red Army have won, the Soviet revolution would have spread as far as the Marne; a reason why the conflict in question was of so much interest to the Norwegian press, considered a mirror of the stand the Norwegian public opinion took as regards the position of the then superpowers towards the said war, the meaning of the war for the Norwegian public opinion as well as Norwegians’s sympathy for or disfavour of the militant parties. This article aims both at presenting the above mentioned issues and juxtaposing them with the political, military, and social questions to date as they appeared in the then Norwegian press. For that purpose my article will also resort to the literature on the subject of the Polish-Bolshevist war.

A Woman in Berlin: Reappraising Mass Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in Public Health

Abstract Preventing sexual and gender-based violence—and mitigating its devastating impacts on individuals and societies—is a central challenge of public health. A Woman in Berlin is 34-year-old journalist Marta Hillers’s first-hand account of life during the 1945 Red Army occupation of Berlin at the conclusion of World War II, when Russian soldiers collectively raped 2 million German civilians. Reflecting upon Hillers’s testimony, I argue that historical narratives about large-scale acts of sexual and gender-based violence deserve a more central place in public health discourse. I also question how the ethical challenges of memorializing and studying mass crimes might inform future public health efforts to advance gender equity and mitigate sexual violence globally.

Regarding the question of the Soviet occupation of Austria. The main directions of the activities of the Red Army’s occupation policy in the late war and early post-war period (April-July 1945)160-176.

Regarding the question of the Soviet occupation of Austria. The main directions of the activities of the Red Army’s occupation policy in the late war and early post-war period (April-July 1945)160-176.

Бій під Сидоровим 25 липня 1920 року: забута звитяга Армії УНР

The history of the Armed Forces of our country is fi lled with many heroic pages that testify to the indomitability of the Ukrainian spirit, the high military skill of commanders and ordinary soldiers, their courage, bravery, and willingness to sacrifi ce themselves for the sake of national interests. Th e battle with the Red Army, which took place near Sydoriv in Eastern Halychyna on July 25, 1920, has not yet become the subject of special research by domestic his- torians. The purpose of the article is to fi nd out based on mobilized sources and historiography, the prerequisites, course, and results of the battle of the Army of the Ukrainian People’s Republic with the Red Army on July 25, 1920, under Sydoriv, its signifi cance for the continuation of the Polish-Ukrainian-Soviet confrontation. Th e research methodology is based on the principles of historicism and objectivity. Th e use of such methods as analysis, synthesis, as well as problem- chronological, systematic, descriptive, statistical, and comparative methods, made it possible to fulfi ll the set goal. Th e scientifi c novelty of the research lies in the holistic, objective coverage of the prerequisites, course, and results of the mentioned battle, and its infl uence on the further development of the Polish-Ukrainian-Soviet war in the summer of 1920 in Pryzbruchchia. Conclusions. The military and political situation in June–July 1920 was not favorable for the Army of the Ukrainian People’s Republic; it was preceded by a long-forced retreat together with its Polish ally, under the blows of the overwhelming forces of the Red Army, to new defen- sive lines on the Zbruch River. Constant clashes exhausted the Ukrainian army, which followed the tactics of active defense. From time to time there were threats of a breakthrough of the front by the enemy, which had to be eliminated. The successful implementation of the idea was the victorious battle of the 3rd Iron Division and the Separate Cavalry Division with the advancing “Red” units on July 25, 1920, near Sydoriv, in which the enemy was completely defeated. Th e Ukrainians demonstrated the high military skill of their commanders, courage, heroism, and mature military training of ordinary soldiers. The counter-battle brilliantly conducted by the cavalrymen with the prevailing enemy cavalry, which in military aff airs is considered one of the most diffi cult types of combat, and the evasive maneuver that led to the encirclement and defeat of the enemy should be considered one of the brightest pages in the history of the Ukrainian army and the national military art of the modern era.

Route “Roads of Memory”: Resource of the Commemorative Practice on the Places of Hostilities on the Territory of Russia and Belarus (1941–1945)

This article is devoted to the description of the implementation of the route “Roads of Memory” as a format of historical “immersion” in the research material that contributes to the reconstruction of social memory about the events of the Great Patriotic War, the phenomenon of human losses during the War, the formation of the meaning of this phenomenon and the veneration of humanistic value. This commemorative practice turned out to be extremely understandable and successful in the format of research objectives of the archival search team. In July 2019, a group of students with a professor, in connection with the 75th anniversary of the liberation of the Byelorussian SSR territory from the invaders, went to the Republic of Belarus in order to visit the brotherly burials where the remains of Siberians rest. The commemoration was called “Roads of Memory” and covered the route from Novosibirsk through Moscow to Smolensk – Roslavl – Minsk – Vitebsk. The participants visited the burial sites of Red Army soldiers who died in battles during the Great Patriotic War or in concentration camps. The study used a set of complementary methods that contribute both to the effectiveness of the search and to the professional promotion of the participants of the archival search team. The narration of the events described by the route “Roads of Memory” is a combination of a diary essay and storytelling, in the tradition of the narrative approach.