Rectification Properties Research Articles

Novel Al/CoFe/p-Si and Al/NiFe/p-Si MS-type photodiode for sensing

CoFe and NiFe are used in the construction of Si-based metal-semiconductor-type photodiodes. Thin film layers are sputtered onto thep-Si surface where Al metal contacts are deposited using the thermal evaporation technique. Film characteristics of the layers are investigated with respect to the crystalline structure and surface morphology. Their electrical and optical properties are investigated using dark and illuminated current-voltage measurements. When these two diodes are compared, Al/NiFe/p-Si exhibits better rectification properties than Al/CoFe/p-Si diode. There is also a high barrier height where these values for both diodes increase with illumination. According to the current-voltage analysis, the existence of an interlayer causes a deviation in diode ideality. In addition, the response to bias voltage, the derivation of electrical parameters, and the light sensitivity of diodes are evaluated using current-voltage measurements under different illumination intensities and also transient photosensitive characteristics.

Cell membrane-inspired COF/AAO hybrid nanofluidic membrane with ion current rectification properties for ultrasensitive detection of E. coli

Nanofluidic membranes hold great prospects in sensitive and rapid detection of bioanalysts, while remaining lacking robust and general approaches for specificity. In this work, we introduce a cell membrane-inspired nanofluidic membrane with excellent ion current rectification properties as a simple and robust platform for label-free and ultrasensitive biosensing. The asymmetric nanofluidic membrane is prepared by coupling a two-dimensional covalent organic framework (COF) membrane to an anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) nanochannel via hydrogen bonding. The prepared COF/AAO membrane presents selective ion transport due to the asymmetric structure and anion selectivity of COF. With the large surface area and abundant functional modification sites of COF, further grafting of the recognition unit can be easily achieved to mimic the recognition process of receptors and ligands on cell membranes. As a proof of concept, the application in bacterial detection is demonstrated by covalently bonded Concanavalin A as recognition units. The highly amplified ionic current based on ion current rectification properties of the COF/AAO membrane allows sensitive and selective bioanalysis. Specifically, the proposed asymmetric nanofluidic membrane presents a linear detection range from 10 to 106 CFU/mL with an ultralow detection limit of 7 CFU/mL for E. coli. This work reveals the great potential of COF/AAO hybrid nanofluidic membrane as a sensor for rapid and precise bioanalysis.

Nernst equilibrium, rectification, and saturation: Insights into ion channel behavior

The dissipation of electrochemical gradients through ion channels plays a central role in biology. Herein we use voltage-responsive kinetic models of ion channels to explore how electrical and chemical potentials differentially influence ion transport properties. These models demonstrate how electrically driven flux is greater than the Nernstian equivalent chemically driven flux yet still perfectly cancels when the two gradients oppose each other. We find that the location and relative stability of ion-binding sites dictates rectification properties by shifting the location of the most voltage-sensitive transitions. However, these rectification properties invert when bulk concentrations increase relative to the binding-site stabilities, moving the rate-limiting steps from uptake into a relatively empty channel to release from an ion-blocked full channel. Additionally, the origin of channel saturation is shown to depend on the free energy of uptake relative to bulk concentrations. Collectively these insights provide a framework for interpreting and predicting how channel properties manifest in electrochemical transport behavior.

Theoretical design of molecular diode based on thiol- and amino- terminated molecules

Utilizing density functional theory (DFT) and non-equilibrium Green’s function, we systematically studied the electrical transport and rectification properties of thiol- and amino-terminated molecules embedded in graphene nanoribbons. We firstly found the thiol-terminated molecules show better electron transport properties compared to the amino-terminated, which can be attributed to the strong electronwithdrawing ability and favorable coupling effects. Secondly, the symmetrical molecules show almost symmetrical current-voltage (I-V) curves and exhibit negligible rectification effects. On the other hand, the asymmetrical molecules exhibit asymmetrical I-V curves and better rectification performance. The rectification effect is closely related to molecular asymmetry degrees. For example, the rectification ratio of asymmetric N6 ((E)-Nl-(3-aminopropyl)-but-2-ene-1,4-diamine) molecule is much smaller than the N4 (5-phenylthiazole-2,4-diamine) and N5 (2,6-diaminohexane-1,1,5-triol) molecules. Furthermore, we found the rectification ratio of the asymmetrical amino-terminated molecules can reach 400, while the biggest rectification ratio of the thiol-terminated molecule can only reach 45. These findings offer crucial insights for future graphene molecular electronic device design.

Harnessing the synergistic effect of CuO@Fe3O4/n-Si for high-efficiency photodiodes

High-performance photodetectors were fabricated using drop-casting method, employing pure CuO, Fe3O4 and CuO@Fe3O4 nanocomposite (NC). These devices aim to achieve enhanced responsivity (R), photosensitivity (Ps), detectivity (D∗), and external quantum efficiency (EQE). The XRD results indicate that the crystallite size of the CuO@Fe3O4 NC was reduced to around 20 nm, compared to 23 nm for pure CuO and 25 nm for pure Fe3O4. In addition, phase purity and functional groups were corroborated by Raman and FTIR analysis, supporting these findings. The bandgap energy of pure CuO and Fe3O4 was estimated to be around 1.25 and 1.22 eV, respectively, while the CuO@Fe3O4 NC exhibited a lower bandgap energy of 1.13 eV due to the interface between CuO and Fe3O4. Notably, the fabricated CuO@Fe₃O₄/n-Si photodiode exhibited excellent rectification properties under illumination, with an ideality factor (n) of 2.87 and a barrier height (ΦB) of 0.83 eV. The device achieved high Ps of 773.4 %, R of 542.6 mA/W, EQE of 208.7 %, and D∗ of 2.91 × 1012 Jones, demonstrating that the CuO@Fe3O4 NC is the most effective material for photodetection in this study.

In situ noninvasive monitoring of cell secretions based on MOFs/AAO hybrid membrane induced asymmetric ion transport

Nanofluidic hybrid membranes display distinct ionic current rectification (ICR) properties and provide high surface area for immobilizing probes on the outer surface, exhibiting great potential in detection of biomolecules. Herein, we fabricated MOFs/AAO hybrid membrane with aptamers functionalized on the outer surface for in situ detection of living cells released secretions. TNF-α (a small molecular protein secreted by macrophages) was used as a model. After TNF-α was specifically captured by aptamers on the membrane surface, the asymmetry of surface charge on the hybrid membrane was amplified, the ICR was increased from 3.89 to 18.85. According to the ICR change, TNF-α was sensitively measured with a detection limit of ∼0.49 pM, which was significantly lower than other reported methods. When the hybrid membrane was clamped in the middle of self-made device, PET membrane incubated macrophages was rolled up and inserted into the chamber to mimic cellular microenvironment. Macrophages released TNF-α could be real time monitored with ionic current, macrophages and normal cells could be effectively distinguished according to the released TNF-α level. Thus, we proposed a nanofluidic platform for accurately measuring cell secretions in an engineered cellular microenvironment with a direct manner, without the need for labels or amplification steps.

Nernst Equilibrium, Rectification, and Saturation: Insights into Ion Channel Behavior.

The dissipation of electrochemical gradients through ion channels plays a central role in biology. Herein we use voltage responsive kinetic models of ion channels to explore how electrical and chemical potentials differentially influence ion transport properties. These models demonstrate how electrically driven flux is greater than the Nernstian equivalent chemically driven flux, yet still perfectly cancels when the two gradients oppose each other. We find that the location and relative stability of ion binding sites dictates rectification properties by shifting the location of the most voltage sensitive transitions. However, these rectification properties invert when bulk concentrations increase relative to the binding site stabilities, moving the rate limiting steps from uptake into a relatively empty channel to release from an ion-blocked full channel. Additionally, the origin of channel saturation is shown to depend on the free energy of uptake relative to bulk concentrations. Collectively these insights provide framework for interpreting and predicting how channel properties manifest in electrochemical transport behavior.

Enhancing photo-response performance through ultrathin Al2O3 modification at the p-SnO2:Al/n-GaN heterojunction interface

We report on photoconductive and p-n heterojunction ultraviolet (UV) photodetectors based on p-type Al-doped SnO2 (p-SnO2:Al) thin films. We investigated the structural, optical, and electrical properties of Al-doped SnO2 thin films prepared using sol-gel methods, with our results being strongly supported by first-principles calculations. To achieve a self-powered photodetector device at zero bias, we fabricated p-SnO2:Al thin film on an n-GaN layer to form a p-n heterojunction. The responsivity of the p-n heterojunction UV detector, measured at zero bias, is 0.05 A/W, indicating good rectification properties. In order to improve device performance, a p-n heterojunction with a passivation layer was formed by inserting an ultrathin Al2O3 layer between the n-GaN layer and the p-SnO2:Al layer. With this change, the device's responsivity was 0.44 A/W at 350 nm at zero bias, roughly 10 times better than the detector without the Al2O3 passivation layer. The insertion of an ultrathin Al2O3 layer, which increases the efficiency of carrier separation on the SnO2 side while lowering the rate of carrier recombination at the interface, is responsible for the increased light responsivity performance.

Synaptic Response of Fluidic Nanopores: The Connection of Potentiation with Hysteresis.

Iontronic fluidic ionic/electronic components are emerging as promising elements for artificial brain-like computation systems. Nanopore ionic rectifiers can be operated as a synapse element, exhibiting conductance modulation in response to a train of voltage impulses, thus producing programmable resistive states. We propose a model that replicates hysteresis, rectification, and time domain response properties, based on conductance modulation between two conducting modes and a relaxation time of the state variable. We show that the kinetic effects observed in hysteresis loops govern the potentiation phenomena related to conductivity modulation. To illustrate the efficacy of the model, we apply it to replicate rectification, hysteresis and conductance modulation of two different experimental systems: a polymer membrane with conical pores, and a blind-hole nanoporous anodic alumina membrane with a barrier oxide layer. We show that the time transient analysis of the model develops the observed potentiation and depression phenomena of the synaptic properties.

Fabrication and characteristics study of self‐powered and UV–Vis–NIR photodetector based on p‐NiO:Eu nanofibers

AbstractHeterojunctions formed between undoped and Eu‐doped NiO nanofibers (NFs) and n‐Si were fabricated by electrospinning the NiO:Eu NFs onto Si. Since the photoresponse of the Eu‐doped NiO‐containing device was better than the undoped one, the study focused on the doped NiO‐containing device. This was explained by the increase in electron kinetics in terms of the active role of Eu in bonding with the 4f orbitals and the s, d, and f states of NiO. Electro‐optical measurements of the NiO:Eu NFs/n‐Si heterojunction were performed in the visible region depending on the light intensity and in the UV and NIR regions for 10 mW/cm2 powers. It was observed that the device exhibits a good level of rectification properties and responds very well to all lights. At all three light sources, the heterojunction photodetector exhibited self‐powered behavior. Furthermore, for 10 mW/cm2 light intensity, the NiO:Eu NFs/n‐Si photodetector achieved R values of 1.84 A/W at 365 nm, 0.98 A/W at 395 nm, and 1.54 A/W at 850 nm, while it is 0.12 A/W for visible light. Besides, the device showed an external quantum efficiency of 625% and this was attributed to the photocurrent gain. In self‐driven mode, D* values have been determined as 3.0 × 1012 Jones, 2.6 × 1012 Jones, and 2.9 × 1012 Jones for 365, 395, and 850 nm, respectively. The performance of NiO under UV light was attributed to the absorption of NiO under UV light, as well as the very good excitation of (Eu3+) ions by UV light.

Ultrathin Ionic Diodes with Electrostatically Heterogeneous Hybrid Interfaces of Nanoporous SiO2 Nanofilms and Polymer Layer-by-Layer Multilayers.

Nanofluidic ionic diodes have attracted much attention due to their unique functions as unidirectional ion transportation ability and promising applications from molecular sensing, and energy harvesting to emerging neuromorphic devices. However, it remains a challenge to fabricate diode-like nanofluidic systems with ultrathin film thickness <100nm. Herein the formation of ultrathin ionic diodes from hybrid nanoassemblies of nanoporous (NP) SiO2 nanofilms and polyelectrolyte layer-by-layer (LbL) multilayers is described. Ultrathin ionic diodes are prepared by integrating polyelectrolyte multilayers onto photo-oxidized NP SiO2 nanofilms obtained from silsesquioxane-containing block copolymer thin films as a template. The obtained ultrathin ionic diodes exhibit ion current rectification (ICR) properties with high ICR factor = ≈20 under low ionic strength and asymmetric pH conditions. It is concluded that this ICR behavior arises from effective ion accumulation and depletion at the interface of NP SiO2 nanofilms and LbL multilayers attributed to high ion selectivity by combining the experimental data and theoretical calculations using finite element methods. These results demonstrate that the hybrid nano assemblies of NP SiO2 nanofilms and polyelectrolyte LbL multilayers have potential applications for (bio)sensing materials and integrated ionic circuits for seamless connection of human-machine interfaces.

One-Dimensional van der Waals Heterojunction Comprising Carbon Nanotube Half-Wrapped in Boron Nitride Nanotube: Deep Investigation of Thermal Rectification.

One-dimensional van der Waals (vdWs) heterostructures are celebrated for their exceptional thermal management capabilities, garnering significant research interest. Consequently, our research focused on the one-dimensional vdWs heterojunction comprising carbon nanotube half-wrapped in boron nitride nanotube (BNCNT), specifically their thermal rectification (TR) properties. We employed non-equilibrium molecular dynamics to explore the TR mechanism and assess the impacts of temperature, strain, and coupling strength on heat flux and TR ratio. Our findings reveal that the backward heat flux demonstrates greater atomic vibration instability, as indicated by mean square displacement (MSD), compared to forward heat flux. This instability leads to a higher concentration of localized phonons, thereby diminishing the backward heat flux and enhancing TR. Additionally, we utilized MSD to shed light on the negative differential thermal resistance phenomenon and the influence of stress on forward and backward heat fluxes. Remarkably, TR ratios reached 344% at 3% strain and 400% at -1% strain. Calculations of phonon density of states revealed a competitive mechanism between in-plane and out-of-plane phonons coupling in the inner carbon nanotube and an overlap degree of out-of-plane phonon spectra between the inner carbon nanotube and outer boron nitride nanotube. This accounts for the differing trends in forward and backward heat fluxes as coupling strength χ increases, with TR ratios exceeding 1000% at χ = 7.5. This study provides vital insights for advancing one-dimensional vdWs thermal rectifiers.

Drop–Dry Deposition of SnO2 Using Na2SnO3 and Fabrication of SnO2/NiO Transparent Solar Cells

In this work, SnO2 thin films are deposited by drop–dry deposition (DDD), which is a simple, low-cost chemical technique for thin film deposition. The deposition solution contains Na2SnO3 as the Sn source, and is highly stable without spontaneous reactions in the solution. The solution is dropped on a substrate heated to 60°C on a heater plate. According to Auger electron spectroscopy, the deposit will be stoichiometric SnO2. The film is n-type and transparent in the visible range. The pn heterostructure is fabricated by depositing SnO2 on p-type NiO. The NiO film is also fabricated by DDD. Ni(OH)2 is deposited using a solution containing Ni(NO3)2 and NaOH, and then is converted to NiO by annealing at 400°C. The SnO2/NiO structure is transparent in the visible range and shows clear rectification properties and photovoltaic effects. Thus, a transparent solar cell is successfully fabricated by DDD.

Enhancing photodetection performance through laser fluence control: SnO2 nanostructured deposited on porous silicon

In this study, we have covered a porous silicon (PS) layer with tin dioxide (SnO2) nanostructured via a pulsed laser deposition process to produce a broadband photoresponse device. The impact of laser fluence on the optical, electrical, and structural characteristics of the fabricated photodetector was identified. The optical features analysis indicated that the SnO2 films covered on porous silicon have a direct energy gap varying from 3.62 to 3.67 eV as a function of laser fluence. The X-ray diffraction investigation proved that the SnO2 nanostructure has a tetragonal rutile nature. The Field-emission scanning electron microscopy emphasised that produced SnO2 nanostructures have a mean size of 81.76–98.68 nm, and nanoparticle agglomeration was remarked. The photoluminescence emissions of SnO2 nanostructure placed on porous silicon displayed a variety of overlapping intensities in the near-ultraviolet/visible spectrum between 369 and 506 nm, while the intense red band decreased in intensity and shifted towards longer wavelengths. Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy investigation indicates the existence of the Sn-O-Si bond in the formed structure.The dependence of the optoelectronic characteristics of PS/n-Si and SnO2/PS/n-Si photodetector on laser fluence has been performed. Produced heterojunctions have remarkable rectification properties with ideality factors ranging from 2.27 to 2.91, relying on the laser fluence. The spectral responsivity analysis showed that SnO2/PS/n-Si photodetectors exhibit three response bands at ∼366 nm, ∼621 nm, and ∼806 nm, regarding the highest responsivity of 0.21 A/W, 0.33 A/W, and 0.43 A/W, respectively. The findings suggest that SnO2/PS/n-Si heterojunction photodetectors are suitable for developed ultraviolet–visible light detection enhanced photodiodes that are cost-effective and convenient for use in wearable and portable devices without expensive extra gadgets.

In-Situ Gas Permeation-Driven Ionic Current Rectification of Heterogeneously Charged Nanopore Arrays.

Ionic diodes provide ionic current rectification (ICR), which is useful for micro-/nanofluidic devices for ionic current-mediated applications. However, the modulation of ICR is not fully developed, and current challenges include limited active control and localized modulation for further multiplexing of micro-/nanofluidic ionic diodes. Herein, a microfluidic device integrated with particle-assembly-based ionic diodes (PAIDs) and a gas-flow channel above them is presented. Exploiting in-situ gas permeation through a polymeric film, precise control over the physiochemical conditions of the nanopores within the PAIDs, leading to the modulation of ICR is demonstrated. The investigation not only characterizes the rectification properties of the PAIDs but also unveils their capacitor-like behavior and the ability to actively modulate ICR using various gas flows. Furthermore, the reversible modulation of ICR through dynamic switching of gas-dissolved solutions, enabling ion-signal amplification is showcased. This pioneering approach of in situ gas-permeation offers programmable manipulation of ion transport along PAIDs, thereby positioning ionic diodes as versatile nanofluidic components. Looking ahead, the development of multiplexed PAIDs in an addressable manner on a chip holds promise for practical applications across diverse fields, including ion signaling, ion-based logic, chemical reactors, and (bio)chemical sensing.

Polyoxometalate-based plasmonic electron sponge membrane for nanofluidic osmotic energy conversion.

Nanofluidic membranes have demonstrated great potential in harvesting osmotic energy. However, the output power densities are usually hampered by insufficient membrane permselectivity. Herein, we design a polyoxometalates (POMs)-based nanofluidic plasmonic electron sponge membrane (PESM) for highly efficient osmotic energy conversion. Under light irradiation, hot electrons are generated on Au NPs surface and then transferred and stored in POMs electron sponges, while hot holes are consumed by water. The stored hot electrons in POMs increase the charge density and hydrophilicity of PESM, resulting in significantly improved permselectivity for high-performance osmotic energy conversion. In addition, the unique ionic current rectification (ICR) property of the prepared nanofluidic PESM inhibits ion concentration polarization effectively, which could further improve its permselectivity. Under light with 500-fold NaCl gradient, the maximum output power density of the prepared PESM reaches 70.4 W m-2, which is further enhanced even to 102.1 W m-2 by changing the ligand to P5W30. This work highlights the crucial roles of plasmonic electron sponge for tailoring the surface charge, modulating ion transport dynamics, and improving the performance of nanofluidic osmotic energy conversion.

Thermal-Rectified Gradient Porous Polymeric Film for Solar-Thermal Regulatory Cooling.

Solar-thermal regulation concerning thermal insulation and solar modulation is pivotal for cooling textiles and smart buildings.Nevertheless, a contradiction arises in balancing the demand to prevent external heat infiltration with the efficient dissipation of excess heat from enclosed spaces. Here, a concentration-gradient polymerization strategy is presented for fabricating a gradient porous polymeric film comprising interconnected polymeric microspheres. This method involves establishing an electric field-driven gradient distribution of charged crosslinkers in the precursor solution, followed by subsequent polymerization and freeze-drying processes. The resulting porous film exhibits a significant porosity gradient along its thickness, leading to exceptional unidirectional thermal insulation capabilities with a thermal rectification factor of 21%. The gradient porous film, with its thermal rectification properties, effectively reconciles the conflicting demands of diverse thermal conductivity for cooling unheated and spontaneously heated enclosed spaces. Consequently, the gradient porous film demonstrates remarkable enhancements in solar-thermal management, achieving temperature reductions of 3.0 and 4.1°C for unheated and spontaneously heated enclosed spaces, respectively, compared to uniform porous films. The developed gradient-structured porous film thus holds promise for the development of thermal-rectified materials tailored to regulate solar-thermal conditions within enclosed environments.

A bioinspired heterostructured nanochannel based on dendrimer-gold network and aluminum oxide arrays for sensitive detection of miRNA

BackgroundMicroRNAs, as oncogenes or tumor suppressors, enable to up or down-regulate gene expression during tumorigenesis. The detection of miRNAs with high sensitivity is crucial for the early diagnosis of cancer. Inspired by biological ion channels, artificial nanochannels are considered as an excellent biosensing platform with relatively high sensitivity and stability. The current nanochannel biosensors are mainly based on homogeneous membranes, and their monotonous structure and functionality limit its further development. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a heterostructured nanochannel with high ionic current rectification to achieve highly sensitive miRNA detection. ResultsIn this work, an asymmetric heterostructured nanochannel constructed from dendrimer-gold nanoparticles network and anodic aluminum oxide are designed through an interfacial super-assembly method, which can regulate ion transport and achieve sensitive detection of target miRNA. The symmetry breaking is demonstrated to endow the heterostructured nanochannels with an outstanding ionic current rectification performance. Arising from the change of surface charges in the nanochannels triggered by DNA cascade signal amplification in solution, the proposed heterogeneous nanochannels exhibits excellent DNA-regulated ionic current response. Relying on the nucleic acid's hybridization and configuration transformation, the target miRNA-122 associated with liver cancer can be indirectly quantified with a detection limit of 1 fM and a wide dynamic range from 1 fM to 10 pM. The correlation fitting coefficient R2 of the calibration curve can reach to 0.996. The experimental results show that the method has a good recovery rate (98%–105 %) in synthetic samples. SignificanceThis study reveals how the surface charge density of nanochannels regulate the ionic current response in the heterostructured nanochannels. The designed heterogeneous nanochannels not only possess high ionic current rectification property, but also enable to induce superior transport performance by the variation of surface chemistry. The proposed biosensor is promising for applications in early diagnosis of cancers, life science research, and single-entity electrochemical detection.

Effect of Cr doping and photoresponse properties of photodiode based on CdO thin films

AbstractCadmium oxide (CdO) and chromium (Cr) doped CdO thin films with various Cr wt% contents (0.1, 0.5, 1, 2 at.%) are synthesised on soda lime glass (SLG) substrates. Results from X-ray analysis indicate that all thin films are in cubic nature with (111) preferential orientation. Cr doping does not appear to result in a transition from one crystal phase to another. CdO with the 2.0 wt% Cr doping absorbs much more light than undoped CdO in low wavelength region (&lt; ≈450 nm), giving a maximum absorption peak in the ultraviolet region. Cr doped CdO/p-Si heterojunction shows the Cr wt% content-sensitive rectification property, achieving a high ratio of 105. In addition, Cr doped CdO/p-Si heterojunction exhibits photodiode behavior and possesses an improved photo-to-dark current ratio of ≈153. This work introduces an occasion to develop the optoelectronic devices based on Cr doped CdO thin films.

Harnessing the Intrinsic Ionic Rectification Properties of Blind‐Hole Nanoporous Anodic Alumina for Osmotic Energy Generation

AbstractThe full potential of blue energy as a sustainable technology for high‐performance energy generation remains elusive. Nanoporous anodic alumina (NAA) is extensively used as a passive structural support to develop a broad variety of ion exchange membranes based on other materials for osmosis‐driven energy generation. However, the intrinsic ionic current rectification (ICR) properties of the inherited hemispherical barrier oxide layer (BOL) closing the bottom tips of NAA's nanopores are overlooked. As‐produced NAA provides new avenues to control ionic transport through its BOL, acting as an ICR model system to study electric current associated with the selective flow of ions across anodic oxides. This study explores the intrinsic capability of NAA membranes for osmotic energy generation. NAA membranes with a working area of 13.4 mm2 can generate a power density yield of ≈2.8×10−4 W m−2 when subjected to a 105‐fold salinity ratio at a pH 3 in CaCl2 electrolyte, achieving a high efficiency of 7%. With better understanding of the mechanism of ion transport on osmotic generation, the intrinsic properties of NAA membranes can be tailor‐engineered to maximize blue energy yield, paving the way for future developments in a scalable technology suited for real‐life applications.