Recreational Skiers Research Articles

Hand-grip strength in recreational downhill skiers: a comparison to normative reference values.

Hand-grip strength was evaluated in 757 recreational downhill skiers and compared to 1021 community-dwellers. Findings are reported for age and sex categories consistent with community-dwelling norms. Effect size (Cohen's d) was calculated to estimate the clinical relevance of strength differences between populations. Most male and half of the female age categories of downhill skiers demonstrated higher grip strength of the dominant hand (moderate to large effect size) compared to the reference population. Hand-grip strength in skiers declined with age at a similar rate as in the reference population. Relative grip strength (per kg body mass) was significantly and positively correlated with physical activity (hours/week), and with the number of ski days per year, and negatively with body mass. Thus, hand-grip strength may be related to the type, volume and intensity of exercise regularly performed. These results can help to assess whether the individual hand-grip strength is above or below average with regard to the normal population and the skier population as well and will support advice for training and/or rehabilitation.

Four years of landslide observation with anthropogenic loading as an additional trigger - Analysis of seasonal and annual variability of physical parameters

Determining the structure and evolution of landslides is crucial for geophysical hazard assessment. In this study, we employed an approach integrating the methodologies of multi-channel analysis of surface waves (MASW) and electrical conductivity to image temporal and spatial changes within a landslide in southern Poland. The area, located in the Outer Carpathians, experiences significant climate fluctuations, compounded by anthropogenic activities such as recreational skiing requiring artificial snow.Our combined seismic and electrical methods techniques reveal the landslide's susceptibility to environmental factors on both annual and seasonal scales. Additional analysis, including data clustering and remote sensing, identifies three distinct landslide zones with varying vulnerability to natural and anthropogenic influences.While focusing on a specific area, our approach has global applicability to similar mass movements. This research addresses a gap in understanding time-dependent geophysical observations of moisture-driven landslides, providing valuable insights for hazard identification and mitigation strategies.

Serum per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) levels and health-related biomarkers in a pilot study of skiers in New England

BackgroundPer- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), synthetic chemicals with adverse health effects, are used extensively in consumer products. Ski waxes, applied to the base of skis, contain up to 100% PFAS by mass, but exposure and health effects are poorly characterized. ObjectivesOur objectives were to quantify serum PFAS concentrations among skiers and explore associations with reported ski wax use and biomarkers of cardiometabolic, thyroid, and immune health. MethodsWe recruited 30 active adult skiers to provide non-fasting blood samples and complete questionnaires. We quantified 18 PFAS using mass spectrometry, and measured serum lipids, thyroid hormones, and immunoglobulins. We explored associations of individual and aggregate measures of serum PFAS with wax use indicators and health biomarkers using multivariable regression models, adjusted for age and gender identity. ResultsNine PFAS (PFBS, PFHpS, PFHxS, Sm-PFOS, n-PFOS, PFDA, PFNA, PFUnDA, n-PFOA) were detected in 100% of participants, and MeFOSAA in 93%. Compared to NHANES, median serum concentrations (ng/ml) were similar, but higher in coaches (e.g., PFOAall: 1.1, PFOAcoaches: 2.7, PFOANHANES: 1.2; PFNAall: 0.5, PFNAcoaches: 1.7, PFNANHANES: 0.4). Factors reflecting wax exposure were positively associated with PFAS: e.g., >10 years as a snow sport athlete, compared to ≤10 years, was associated with 3.2 (95% CI: 0.7, 5.6) ng/ml higher aggregate PFAS, as defined by National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). An IQR (6.3 ng/ml) increase in NASEM PFAS was associated with 32.1 (95% CI: 7.0, 57.2), 35.5 (13.5, 57.5), and 12.8 (0.6, 25.1) mg/dl higher total cholesterol, LDL-C, and sdLDL-C, respectively. DiscussionOur study provides early evidence that recreational skiers, particularly coaches, are exposed to PFAS through ski wax. Several PFAS were associated with higher serum lipids among these physically active adults. Interventions to remove PFAS from fluorinated wax could decrease direct exposure to skiers and reduce PFAS release into the environment.

Heel Riser Height Influence on Kinematics and Muscle Activity of Ski Mountaineering: A FieldBased Study

Introduction: The ski binding plays an important role in ski mountaineering. When traveling uphill, the binding has an adjustable heel height known as the riser. Previous laboratory research reported joint kinematics and kinetics are influenced by riser height, however little is known about changes to muscle activity associated with differing joint motion. The purpose of this work was to assess riser height influence on kinematics and muscle activity at different slopes during on-snow skiing. Methods: Three female and nine male recreational ski mountaineers (19-26 y) were tested on 5o and 16o gradients using no riser (0 cm) and riser (5.3 cm) at a submaximal 80% HRmax. Each subject used Backland 85 UL skis and Backland Bindings (Atomic Skis, Altenmarkt, Austria). Subjects skied for 6 min at each binding setting with the last 10 gait-cycles evaluating lower limb joint motion gathered from 2D-sagittal plane motion capture. Electromyography (EMG) collected unilaterally on the rectus femoris, biceps femoris, medial gastrocnemius and triceps brachii also. Results: 5o slope: hip range of motion [ROM] decreased (p = .003), ankle ROM decreased (p =.005), stride length decreased (p = .004), RPE increased (p = .02) for riser compared to no riser. At 16o slope: hip ROM decreased (p = .001), and Rating of perceived exertion [RPE] decreased (p =.004) for riser compared to no riser. HR, glide distance, velocity, EMG, and net mechanical efficiency were not different between riser heights on either slope. Conclusion: Lower body joint kinematics, step length and RPE varied significantly with riser height. Kinematic differences did not impact velocity or muscle activity when controlling pace. These results agree with previous findings showing minimal differences in EMG and HR while lower body kinematics and RPE changed with riser height.

Heel riser height influence on kinematics and muscle activity of ski mountaineering – A field based study

Introduction The ski binding plays an important role in ski mountaineering. When traveling uphill, the binding has an adjustable heel height known as the riser. Previous laboratory research reported joint kinematics and kinetics are influenced by riser height, however little is known about changes to muscle activity associated with differing joint motion. The purpose of this work was to assess riser height influence on kinematics and muscle activity at different slopes during on-snow skiing. Methods Three female and nine male recreational ski mountaineers (19-26 y) were tested on 5o and 16o gradients using no riser (0 cm) and riser (5.3 cm) at a submaximal 80% HRmax. Each subject used Backland 85 UL skis and Backland Bindings (Atomic Skis, Altenmarkt, Austria). Subjects skied for 6 min at each binding setting with the last 10 gait-cycles evaluating lower limb joint motion gathered from 2D-sagittal plane motion capture. Electromyography (EMG) collected unilaterally on the rectus femoris, biceps femoris, medial gastrocnemius and triceps brachii also. Results 5o slope: hip range of motion (ROM) decreased (p = .003), ankle ROM decreased (p = .005), stride length decreased (p = .004), rating of perceived exertion (RPE) increased (p = .02) for riser compared to no riser. At 16o slope: hip ROM decreased (p = .001), and RPE decreased (p = .004) for riser compared to no riser. HR, glide distance, velocity, EMG, and net mechanical efficiency were not different between riser heights on either slope. Discussion/Conclusion Lower body joint kinematics, step length and RPE varied significantly with riser height. Kinematic differences did not impact velocity or muscle activity when controlling pace. These results agree with previous findings showing minimal differences in EMG and HR while lower body kinematics and RPE changed with riser height.

THE DETERMINANTS OF SERVICE QUALITY IN SKI TOURISM

Regarding the fact that skiing is the most popular winter sport in Europe, the aim of the paper was to analyse the main determinants of service quality in ski tourism.
 When defining the research process, it was noted that literature review has recognised significant studies dealing with the concept of ski tourism from different aspects such as tourist motivation to travel, ski tourism sustainability and clime change, marketing strategies or ski tourism infrastructure. However, there is a certain research gap in exploring the determinants of service quality in winter sports. Therefore, the main research question in this paper is to identify the significant factors that influence the service quality in ski tourism and affect tourist satisfaction levels.
 The research is based on a sample of 157 recreational skiers who visited the Republic of Serbia during winter seasons in years 2022 and 2023. In the interpretation and processing of data, descriptive statistics and t test were used. The findings indicated the diversity of ski tracks, landscape, nature and hospitality as the most significant determinants of service quality in ski tourism.

Competitive Cross-Country Skiers Have Longer Time to Exhaustion Than Recreational Cross-Country Skiers During Intermittent Work Intervals Normalized to Their Maximal Aerobic Power.

To investigate differences in time to exhaustion (TTE), O2 uptake (V˙O2), and accumulated O2 deficit (O2def) between competitive and recreational cross-country (XC) skiers during an intermittent-interval protocol standardized for maximal aerobic power (MAP). Twelve competitive (maximal V˙O2 [V˙O2max]=76.5±3.8 mL·kg-1·min-1) and 10 recreational (V˙O2max=63.5±6.3 mL·kg-1·min-1) male XC skiers participated. All tests were performed on a rollerski treadmill in the V2 ski-skating technique. To quantify MAP and maximal accumulated oxygen deficit(MAOD), the skiers performed a steady-state submaximal test followed by a 1000-m time trial. After a 60-minute break, TTE, V˙O2, and accumulated O2def were measured during an intermittent-interval protocol (40-s work and 20-s recovery), which was individually tailored to 120% and 60% of each subject's MAP. During the 1000-m time trial, the competitive skiers had 21% (95% CI, 12%-30%) shorter finish time and 24% (95% CI, 14%-34%) higher MAP (all P < .01) than the recreational skiers. No difference was observed in relative exercise intensity (average power/MAP; P = .28), MAOD (P = .18), or fractional utilization of V˙O2max. During the intermittent-interval protocol, the competitive skiers had 34% (95% CI, 3%-65%) longer TTE (P = .03) and accumulated 61% (95% CI, 27%-95%) more O2def (P = .001) than the recreational skiers during work phases. Competitive XC skiers have longer TTE and accumulate more O2def than recreational XC skiers during an intermittent-interval protocol at similar intensity relative to MAP. This implies that performance in intermittent endurance sports is related to the ability to repeatedly recharge fractions of MAOD.

Impact of Environmental Factors on the ACL Injury Risk in Recreational Alpine Skiing.

In recreational alpine skiing, an ACL injury represents the most common injury. Skiing is a complex activity where the skier interacts with the environment, such as weather, snow conditions, temperature, etc. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the potential impact of environmental factors on ACL injury risk in recreational alpine skiers. Among a cohort of 392 ACL-injured skiers and 392 uninjured controls matched for sex and skiing skill, environmental factors were collected by questionnaire. Factors included weather conditions, snow conditions, perceived temperature, and slope difficulty at the time-point of the accident (ACL-injured skiers) or of questioning during the ski day (uninjured controls).Multiple logistic regression revealed that in addition to age, five environmental factors were significantly predictive of an ACL injury: fresh snow (OR 10.5), grippy snow (OR 7.8), icy slope condition (OR 12.4), very cold/cold perceived temperature (OR 1.6), and skiing on easy slopes (OR 6.9). In conclusion, besides age, environmental factors such as fresh and grippy snow, icy slope conditions, low temperatures, and flat slopes are associated with an increased ACL injury risk in recreational alpine skiing. Those factors are at least partly modifiable and should be taken into consideration for preventive strategies.

Serbest Zaman İlgilenimi ve Yaşam Doyumu Arasındaki İlişkinin İncelenmesi: Rekreasyonel Amaçlı Kayakçıların Perspektifleri

In the current study, the aim is to determine the leisure involvement and life satisfaction levels of recreational skiers and to compare these factors with various demographics. The study group consists of 243 recreational skiers (Mage=32.71 ± 10.51). “Leisure Involvement Scale-LIS” and “Life Satisfaction Scale-LSS” were used to collect data. Besides the descriptive statistics, t-test, MANOVA, ANOVA and Pearson Correlation analysis were used to test the hypothesis. The results indicated that “gender” and “participation in skiing event” variables do not have a statistically significant differences in terms of LSS. On the other hand, although “gender” variable does not differ in terms of LIS and its subscales, “participation in skiing event” variable has a significant difference in terms of the subscales of LIS. The significant difference was due to those who participated in skiing events "often" against those who engaged in skiing events "sometimes" and "rarely." In addition, there is a statistically significant positive and low-level correlation between the total mean scores of LSS and the subscales of LIS. As a conclusion, it can be said that as the frequency of participation in the recreational skiing increases, leisure involvement and life satisfaction levels of the participants will increase.

Recreational Skiing- and Snowboarding-Related Extremity Injuries: A Five-Year Tertiary Trauma Center Cohort.

Skiing and snowboarding are widely recognized winter sports with a notable risk of sports-related injuries. Comprehensive knowledge of the injuries sustained during skiing and snowboarding is imperative for preventative strategies and for understanding the injury patterns and epidemiological characteristicsfrom surgeons' standpoint, particularly orthopedic surgeons, given that all anatomical regions and systems are susceptible to harm when engaging in these activities. Our research aims to investigate the injury patterns and epidemiological characteristics of individuals seeking medical attention at Erzincan University Faculty of Medicine Orthopedics and Traumatology Clinic, Erzincan, Turkey, after experiencing recreational skiing or snowboarding injuries. During the period spanning from 2018 to 2023, a retrospective analysis was conducted on patients aged between 18 to 65 years who had sustained isolated extremity injuries while participating in recreational winter sports at the Ergan Mountain Ski Center. The causes of injuries were categorized into two types (skiing and snowboarding) based on the subjective description of the injury scene. The study employed the χ2 test for categorical variables and Student's t-test for continuous variables to conduct subgroup comparisons. The study results revealed that most patients, precisely 53.2%, sustained injuries in their lower extremities, whereas 46.8% sustained injuries in their upper extremities. The most frequently injured area of the patients presenting with skiing injury was the region around the knee (31.2%), followed by around the shoulder (21.6%) and the foot and ankle (14.9%). The anatomical region most injured among patients who sustained snowboarding injuries was the hand and wrist, accounting for 23.9% of cases. Skiing and snowboarding injuries vary anatomically. While individuals with limited experience are at a higher risk of sustaining injuries, no statistically significant disparity was observed regarding the specific body parts affected among individuals of varying skill levels. Recognizing these sports-related injuries, which are growing in young people, will encourage the use of personal protective equipment to avoid injuries, assure ski resorts'environmental safety, and reduce sports-related morbidity.

Level of Overestimation Among Dutch Recreational Skiers: Unskilled Tourists in the Mountains.

To examine the level of overestimation (LO), associated factors, and identify the group of severe overestimators, among recreational skiers. Cross-sectional observational study. An intermediate difficulty slope in an artificial snow indoor ski hall, and one in the mountains (Flachau, Austria). Dutch recreational skiers. Participants were asked to rate themselves (SRSS, self-reported skill score). While skiing downhill they were objectively evaluated by 2 expert assessors (OSS, observed skill score). Potential associated factors and predictors for severe overestimation were assessed by a questionnaire. The LO, calculated by subtracting the OSS from the SRSS, was categorized into "no," "mild," and "severe." Potential differences between these groups were analyzed, and regression analyses were performed to identify the factors associated with severe overestimation. To construct a profile of severe overestimators, the dataset was stratified based on 3 variables. Overestimation was largely present (79.8%), and was severe in 32%. The LO decreased toward the more skilled skiers. Severe overestimators were mainly male, skied the least hours per day, were more avoidant, and showed the highest proportions of beginners and slightly advanced skiers. The profile of "severe overestimator" is characterized by physically unprepared males, avoidant for certain weather circumstances. Overestimation among recreational Dutch skiers is largely present, particularly among physically unprepared males, avoidant of certain snow and weather conditions. These features may function as a proxy to identify "severe overestimators" in comparable populations. Preventive strategies should focus to increase awareness particularly among these subjects.

Exercise and prevalence of cardiovascular disease in older female endurance athletes during 10 years follow-up

Abstract Funding Acknowledgements Type of funding sources: Public grant(s) – National budget only. Main funding source(s): PhD student Kristoffer Johansen is funded by the Northern Norway Regional Health Authority (grant number HNF1568-21). The Birkebeiner Ageing Study has been funded by the Kavli research center for ageing and dementia and the Norwegian ExtraFoundation. Background Although research suggests that the health benefits of endurance sport practice is larger in female compared to male athletes, women are underrepresented in sports cardiology research. Furthermore, previous studies on endurance sport practice in women have mostly included younger to middle aged athletes. Thus, prospective studies addressing endurance sport practice and health among older female endurance athletes is lacking. Purpose The purpose of this study was to characterise how older recreational female cross-country skiers maintained exercise and cardiovascular health during 10-years follow up. Method Forty-six women aged ≥65 years that completed the 54-km Birkebeiner cross country ski race in Norway in 2009/2010 were included. The Birkebeiner race includes about 1000 uphill altitude meters and is considered one of the world's most challenging ski races. Participants answered a questionnaire addressing exercise habits and health issues at baseline in 2009/10 and at follow-up in 2014 and 2020. Thirty-five (76%) participants attended follow-up in 2014 and 36 (78%) participants attended follow-up in 2020. Descriptive statistics are given as mean ± SD for continuous variables and as percentages for categorical variables. Results Skiers (age 67.5 ± 2.2 years at baseline) reported a cumulative exposure to regular endurance exercise of 26 ± 15 years. The proportion reporting moderate- to vigorous exercise during the past year was 86% at baseline and 61% at follow-up in 2020. One woman died during follow up. During 10-years follow-up the cumulative prevalence of atrial fibrillation (AF) was 15.6%, more than twice as high as for other cardiac diseases (7.1%) and stroke (7.1%). Conclusion Most female athletes sustained a physically active and healthy lifestyle with advancing age. Notably, the prevalence of AF was twice as high as for other cardiac diseases and stroke. Thus, although previous literature indicates that the risk of AF in female athletes is reduced, our findings suggest that additional research is needed to draw more firm conclusions. Future studies aiming to further clarify the female athlete and AF association would greatly benefit from including older athletes that has accumulated several decades of endurance sport practice. In conclusion, further research aiming to close the knowledge gap between female and male athletes are highly warranted.

Recreational Alpine Skiing An Introduction

Alpine skiing is the most common type of skiing performed on groomed and marked ski slopes. This review aims to help recreational skier improve their skiing ability by identifying conducive conditions for alpine skiing. Physically, strengthening balance, agility, and static leg strength via conditional training (ie. inline skating, roller blading, biking, running, sports stimulator) better prepares skiers for alpine skiing and reduces the chances of injury. Injury in knee and lower leg is the most common alpine skiing injury and the most severe are head injuries, highlighting the importance of wearing helmet, well-adjusted skis and suitable lane choice. Mentally, for beginners, increasing self-efficacy and decreasing fear and worry improves skiing performance. Whereas, for intermediate skiers, increasing worry or caution of the environment, increases performance. Technically, recreational skiers should attempt to perform symmetrical turns with greater range and speed of body movement. Lastly, the review presents recent technical and equipment advances in professional alpine skiing, reinforcing that the learning journey of alpine skiing is never ending. Hence, recreational skiers have a long and bright way to go, and researchers should try to expand their sample beyond adolescents and individuals in their early twenties, especially when investigating topics besides skiing injuries, to better generalize their impactful findings.

Muscular Fatigue and Quadriceps-to-Hamstring Ratio in Alpine Skiing in Women over 40 Years.

(1) Background: In alpine skiing, senior athletes and especially women have a high risk of knee injury. This may also be related to muscular fatigue (MF) of the knee-stabilizing thigh muscles. This study investigates both the evolution of muscle activity (MA) and of MF of the thighs throughout an entire skiing day. (2) Methods: n = 38 female recreational skiers over 40 years of age performed four specific skiing tasks (plough turns, V-steps uphill, turns with short, and middle radii) at specific times, while freely skiing the rest of the day. Surface EMG of the thigh muscle groups (quadriceps and hamstrings) was measured using special wearables (EMG pants). Apart from standard muscle activity parameters, the EMG data were also processed in the frequency domain to calculate the mean frequency and its shift over the day as a metric of muscle fatigue. (3) Results: The EMG pants showed reliable signal quality over the entire day, with BMI not impacting this. MF increased during skiing before and for both muscle groups significantly (p < 0.006) during lunch. MF, however, was not reflected in the quadriceps-hamstrings ratio. The plough manoeuvre seems to require significantly (p < 0.003) more muscle dynamics than the three other tasks. (4) Conclusion: MF may be quantified over an entire skiing day and thus fatigue information could be given to the skier. This is of major importance for skiers at the beginner level dominantly performing plough turns. Crucial for all skiers: There is no regenerative effect of a 45-min lunch break.

Managing Accident Prevention in Ski Resorts: Participants’ Actual Velocities in Slow Zones

Velocity is one of the main factors affecting the kinematic of snow sports' accidents and the severity of resulting injuries. The aims of the present study were to measure the actual maximum velocities attained by a sample of snow sports participants in slow zones, to compare them to the recommended velocity limits and to assess whether their velocities were in any way related to their personal characteristics and to environmental conditions. Data were drawn from a sample of 1023 recreational skiers and snowboarders during the 2021-2022 winter season at four ski resorts located in the Spanish Pyrenees. Maximum velocity measurements were taken by the authors with a radar speed gun whose precision had been previously validated. Bivariate analysis tests were used to compare the influence that personal characteristics and environmental conditions had on the participants' maximum velocities. Furthermore, a multivariate analysis was performed. The binary logistic regression was used to distinguish the categories of personal and environmental factors that have the highest probabilities of impact on different segments of velocity. As generally accepted, probability values were two-tailed, and values of 0.05 or less were regarded as statistically significant. Participants' mean measured maximum velocity (±SD) was 51.61 (±16.14) km/h. A vast majority of the participants in this study traveled in slow zones at actual maximum velocities well over the recommended limits. Multivariate analysis showed that modality and both environmental conditions (visibility and snow quality) were highly significant and can be used to explain the chances of an increase in velocity in slow zones. Further research is needed to investigate causal relationships between skiers and snowboarders' accidents, injuries and disrespect for velocity limits.

Skill-Specific Differences in Equipment-Related Risk Factors for ACL Injury in Male and Female Recreational Skiers.

In recreational alpine skiing, the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is affected in approximately 50% of serious knee injuries. There are established sex-based and skill-based differences in ACL injury risk, but the potential impact of equipment used (eg, skis, bindings, and boots) has not been evaluated. To evaluate individual and equipment-related risk factors for an ACL injury depending on sex and skill level. Case-control study; Level of evidence, 3. This was a retrospective questionnaire-based, case-control study of female and male skiers with and without ACL injuries during 6 winter seasons (from 2014-2015 to 2019-2020). Demographic data, skill level, equipment specifications, risk-taking behavior, and ownership of ski equipment were recorded. Ski geometry (ski length; sidecut radius; and widths of the tip, waist, and tail) was taken from each participant's ski. The standing heights of the front and back part of the ski binding were measured using a digital sliding caliper, and the standing height ratio was calculated. Abrasion of the ski boot sole was also measured at the toe and heel. Participants were divided by sex into less and more skilled skiers. A total of 1817 recreational skiers participated in this study, of whom 392 (21.6%) sustained an ACL injury. A greater standing height ratio and more abrasion at the toe of the boot sole were associated with increased ACL injury risk in both sexes, independent of the skill level. Riskier behavior increased the injury risk only in male skiers, independent of the skill level, and longer skis increased the injury risk only in less skilled female skiers. Older age, the use of rented/borrowed skis, and more abrasion at the heel of the boot sole were independent risk factors for ACL injury in the more skilled skiers of both sexes. Individual and equipment-related risk factors for an ACL injury partly differed according to skill level and sex. Consideration of the demonstrated equipment-related factors should be implemented in order to reduce ACL injuries in recreational skiers.

Self-reported concussion history among midwestern skiers and snowboarders.

To assess the rate of self-reported concussion in midwestern skiers and snowboarders. Recreational skiers and snowboarders between the ages of 14 and69 yearsduring a single winter ski season (2020-2021) at a ski area in Wisconsin, USA. Survey study. Among this survey population (n=161), 9.32 and 19.25% reported one or more diagnosed concussion and suspected concussion respectively as a result of a skiing- or snowboarding-related incident. Skiers and snowboarders that self-identified as advanced, those who utilized terrain park features, and those that participated in freestyle competition had significantly higher self-reported rates of concussion. Self-reported concussion history indicates a concussion prevalence that is higher than expected based on previous studies. Participants reported significantly more suspected concussions than diagnosed concussions, indicating a possible issue with underreporting in this population.

Association of personal and equipment-related factors on ACL injury risk in alpine skiers with cautious or risk-taking behaviour: A case-control study.

In recreational alpine skiing ACL injury risk depends on the interaction of individual characteristics and behaviours as well as on equipment-related factors. to evaluate if and to what extent personal characteristics and equipment-related parameters are associated with ACL injury risk in cautious and risk-taking recreational alpine skiers. A retrospective questionnaire-based, case-control study of ACL-injured and uninjured in a cohort of cautious as well as risk-taking recreational skiers was conducted. Participants self-reported their demographics, skiing skill level, and risk-taking behaviour. Ski length, side-cut radius, widths of the tip, waist, and tail were recorded from each participant's skis. Standing heights at the front and rear components of the ski binding were measured with a digital sliding caliper, and a standing height ratio between the front and rear components was calculated. Ski boot sole abrasion at the toe and heel pieces was also measured with the digital sliding caliper. In total, 1068 recreational skiers (50.8% females) with a mean age of 37.8 ± 12.3 years participated, of whom 193 (22.0%) sustained an ACL injury, and 330 (30.9%) participants reported a risk-taking behaviour. Results of the multiple logistic regression analyses revealed that a higher age, a lower skill level, a higher standing height ratio, and greater ski boot sole abrasion at the toe as well as heel pieces were independently associated with an increased ACL injury risk in both the cautious and the risk-taking group. Among cautious skiers, a longer ski length was an additional significant risk factor for sustaining an ACL injury. In conclusion, the same personal and equipment related characteristics contribute to an increase in the ACL injury risk regardless of risk-taking behaviour, with the only difference that longer skis represent an additional risk factor in cautious skiers.

Recommendations to improve ski area safety with obstacle padding

ObjectiveFixed obstacles, such as trees, rocks and posts, are common within recreational ski areas. Collisions with fixed obstacles (CWO) can have severe consequences with significant physical, emotional and economic costs. Despite worldwide use of ski area padding, few studies have focused on padding and CWO. The snowsports safety community is now focusing on this topic to improve safety at recreational ski areas. The objectives of this white paper are to summarize the recent work conducted on ski area padding, to identify unsolved questions about CWOs and opportunities to improve safety. MethodsA review of the current knowledge regarding CWOs and ski area padding was performed, combining scientific studies and experience from the authors and ski area safety professionals. This review covers: (i) the epidemiology of CWOs; (ii) the characteristics of CWOs; (iii) padding type and use; (iv) ski area safety professional practices; and, (v) padding performance and the limits for injury mitigation. ResultsPrevious studies focused on epidemiology, padding practices and performance and provide motivation for further study in the areas of: (i) prevention of CWOs; (ii) padding practices to improve safety on the slopes; (iii) requirements for padding performance; and, (iv) technological advancement of padding materials and design. ConclusionsThere is a need for an international standard for ski area padding, to address the absence of padding performance requirements in most countries. Further research studies should also focus on providing guidance to ski areas on the best practices for choosing, applying, and maintaining ski area padding.

‘Where to ski?’: an ethnography of how guides make sense while planning

ABSTRACT A ski guide’s job is to take recreational skiers into avalanche terrain. In this paper, we explore how ski guides make sense of complex social and ecological contexts while planning. Our data arises out of a one-year participant ethnography of ski guiding in Norway, and shows that guides work towards becoming socio-ecologically embedded by making sense of who the clients and what the mountain conditions are, in their determination of where to ski. Our work, through challenging and complementing the decision-making literature, shows how guides notice and act on cues, and through this embed themselves and their clients in the ecological context. We highlight the implications of these findings both for guides working in the outdoors and leisure recreationists.