Recreational Disturbance Research Articles

Visitors’ awareness and assessment of recreational disturbance of wildlife in the Donau-Auen National Park

Summary The Donau-Auen National Park in Austria is situated partially within the area of the city of Vienna, and is exposed to high-use pressure including off-trail use and off-leash dog walking. Management measures are based on, among other things, the knowledge of the user groups’ perceptions of the impacts of their own behaviour on park wildlife, in particular, problematic behaviour. On-site visitors were interviewed using a standardised questionnaire during the winter of 2002 ( N =271) in order to assess their awareness of the disturbance of wildlife due to different anthropogenic uses, including recreational ones. Only 40% of the respondents were aware that wildlife is disturbed, and merely 12% believed that they could have potentially disturbed wildlife on the day of the interview. In contrast, the wildlife experts interviewed assigned greater negative impacts on wildlife to some recreational uses. No differences were found between visitors with unproblematic behaviour and regular off-trail walkers and dog walkers – even those whose dogs were unleashed – in regard to their own potentially impacting behaviour. Some management implications are discussed, taking the specific situation of a small national park on the urban–rural fringe into consideration.

Using an individual-based model to inform estuary management in the Baie de Somme, France

Conservation managers need to be able to assess and prioritize issues that may affect their target habitats and species. In the Baie de Somme, France, conservation issues affecting overwintering shorebirds include hunting pressure, cockle fishing, recreational disturbance, Spartina encroachment, and changing sediment levels. We used an individual-based model to predict the effect of these issues on the survival of three shorebird species: dunlin Calidris alpina, oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus and curlew Numenius arquata. In the model, removing hunting from the mudflats in the eastern part of the estuary had the greatest positive effect on shorebird survival. Oystercatcher survival decreased markedly when stocks of large cockles were reduced to ,250 m -2 or numbers of fishermen per day were doubled. Short-term disturbance events, such as walkers, had more effect on shorebird survival than long- term events, such as fishermen. Dunlin, as a protected species, were able to feed outside the Reserve Naturelle and were unaffected by disturbance within the Reserve. Oys- tercatcher survival decreased when the number of distur- bance events within the Reserve exceeded one h -1 , and curlew survival when disturbance events exceeded six h -1 . Spartina encroachment caused dunlin survival to decline steadily as feeding habitat was lost. Dunlin were also the species most affected by changes in sediment levels, likely to occur through either sedimentation or sea level rise.

Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus and Woodlark Lullula arborea– recovering species in Britain?

The Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus and Woodlark Lullula arborea are identified as species of conservation concern at both a UK and a European level on account of historical declines in their population sizes and ranges. The UK populations of both species have increased significantly in recent decades and this paper reviews the extent, nature and causes of these population changes, based on evidence from national surveys and autecological studies. It also considers the future prospects of both species in the face of likely changes to their preferred habitats in Britain. Nightjar numbers have increased greatly since the national survey in 1981, when the British population was estimated at only 2100 churring males, with an estimated 3400 in 1992 and 4606 (± 913) in 2004. Population recovery has been closely associated with their colonization of clear‐fell areas in planted forests. Over 57% of the calling (‘churring’) males recorded were in planted forests in 2004. Woodlark numbers have also made a substantial recovery from a low level of just 250 territories in 1986 to 1426–1552 territories in 1997. Over 85% of the Woodlark territories recorded in 1997 were on heathland or in planted forests. Despite these increases, both species continue to occupy only part of their much more extensive former breeding ranges. The recovery of these species has coincided with the availability of suitable open ground habitat resulting from the felling of forests planted in the late 1920s and 1930s, often on former heathland habitats, the clearance and restocking of areas damaged by storms in October 1987 and January 1990 and the restoration of heathland habitats. Forests and heathlands support the majority of the breeding populations of Nightjars and Woodlarks, although there are regional variations in their relative importance. The prospects for further recovery may be limited due to a reduction of open ground habitat following restocking of planted forests, including those damaged in the storms of 1987 and 1990, the effects of recreational disturbance and, at least locally, poor Woodlark breeding productivity due to predation.

Factors constraining the distribution of Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos in Scotland

Capsule Between 1992 and 2003 persecution appeared to be the main influential factor. Aims To utilize temporal changes in the distribution and occupation of Golden Eagle territories in Scotland between the 1992 and 2003 national censuses to assess potential causes of regional and national population trends, by examining spatial associations with a number of potential constraints on the population. Methods The distribution of occupied and vacant territories in the 1992 and 2003 censuses were entered as layers in a Geographical Information System (GIS), along with boundaries of biogeographical regions (Natural Heritage Zones) for regional analyses. Additional GIS layers were created for potential factors that may constrain the eagle population: the distribution and abundance of persecution incidents, new commercial conifer forests, popular mountains for hillwalkers (as surrogates for recreational activity), and the density of sheep and Red Deer (as surrogates for carrion abundance), drawn from comparable time periods to the national eagle censuses. Analyses then looked for spatial associations between eagle territory status and those constraint factors that may have influenced change in territory status. Results We found little evidence to suggest that recreational disturbance was influential on the occupation of Golden Eagle territories, although some local effects may have occurred and further analyses are warranted. We could find evidence of only a limited number of territories having being abandoned recently due to the planting of commercial conifer forests. We also rejected the hypothesis that changes in territory occupation between national Golden Eagle censuses were influenced by change in carrion abundance. By contrast, results were consistent with the hypothesis that persecution was influential in the observed change in territory occupation between censuses, so that occupied eagle territories tended to decline where persecution was probably still influential and tended to increase where persecution had probably declined. Conclusion In accordance with earlier predictions based on models of the demographic influence of persecution, in the central and eastern Highlands where grouse moor management predominates, the eagle population continued to decline to levels where increasingly large areas of suitable habitat are unoccupied by breeding pairs.

Stone‐curlews Burhinus oedicnemus and recreational disturbance: developing a management tool for access

Stone‐curlews Burhinus oedicnemus have a vulnerable population status in the UK after a large population decline and range contraction since the 1930s. Much Stone‐curlew breeding habitat is open‐access land designated under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000. In order to guide the conservation and habitat management for this species whilst allowing recreational access, a tool known as the Stone‐Curlew Access Response Evaluator (SCARE) has been developed. SCARE offers a method to assess the effects of scenarios for future changes in disturbance type, routes and frequency and will be valuable in making informed decisions about the management of public access to Stone‐curlew breeding sites and the deployment of habitat creation measures.

Political and social drivers for access to the countryside: the need for research on birds and recreational disturbance

The introduction of a statutory right of access to open country and registered common land in England and Wales in 2005 was a major milestone in a campaign traceable to the 19th century, with views strongly polarized between social classes and political parties, and between land owners and campaigners. More recently, access has also been recognized as a factor contributing to quality‐of‐life, public health, social diversity and rural economic issues. The mapping of access land revealed that 55% of it is also designated Site of Special Scientific Interest, where wildlife is legally conserved. This has generated a need to assess the implications of access in each case, and take measures to ensure nationally and internationally important features are protected, drawing on sound scientific principles. Early research, although competently undertaken, often failed to address population‐scale effects significant at the designated‐site level, enabling disputes and polarized ‘beliefs’ to be articulated. Hence, in addition to drawing up formal and transparent procedures for evaluating impacts and resolving difficulties, funds were released and a major programme initiated, commissioning applied research of direct relevance to the implementation of the legislation. This has pushed forward the boundaries of knowledge in a field which is both difficult and expensive to study. By gradually replacing ‘belief’ with evidence, this represents a case study in resolving environmental disputes.

Birds and Recreational Disturbance

Birds and Recreational Disturbance

How perception and density‐dependence affect breeding Woodlarks Lullula arborea

There is often a perceived conflict between allowing recreational access to the countryside and wildlife conservation. Although many studies have investigated potential impacts on birds, few have assessed the potential impacts of recreational disturbance at the population scale. We studied the impact of disturbance on a Woodlark Lullula arborea population on 16 heathland sites in southern England (Mallord et al. 2006). These sites all had historical records of breeding Woodlarks, and together encompassed a range of visitor access levels. A logistic regression model of patch use was used to quantify habitat suitable for Woodlarks. Woodlarks favoured patches with substantial proportions of bare ground and short vegetation. Across sites, Woodlark density (per hectare of suitable habitat) was lower in sites with higher levels of disturbance. Within sites with recreational access, the probability of suitable habitat being colonized was lower in those areas with greater disturbance; this was reduced to below 50% at around eight disturbance events per hour. There was no effect of disturbance on daily nest survival rates. Birds on sites with higher levels of disturbance fledged more chicks (per pair) owing to a strong density‐dependent increase in reproductive output. A model is presented (Mallord et al. 2007) that predicts the consequences for the Woodlark population of a range of access scenarios. The model suggested that recreational disturbance is already having a major effect on the Woodlark population. Additionally, it predicted that any further impact on the population depended on both the numbers of people and their spatial distribution. Under current access arrangements, a doubling of visitor numbers had little effect, whereas the same number of people distributed evenly across all sites led to a major negative impact on the population. Many previous studies have stressed the negative effects of recreational disturbance on bird behaviour, distribution and breeding success. However, from a conservation viewpoint, the impact at the population level is of paramount importance. Modelling the consequences of alternative access scenarios will help policymakers in the development of appropriate mitigation measures.

An experimental assessment of the potential effects of human disturbance on Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix in the North Pennines, England

In the United Kingdom, Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix have declined in range and abundance during the 20th century. In England at present, birds are largely found only on the margins of managed grouse moors in the north, where more than 80% of birds are confined to the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The Black Grouse is one of a group of species potentially at risk from increased human recreational disturbance owing to their threatened status and their use of habitats to which a statutory right of human recreational access has recently been granted. To assess the likely impact of increased disturbance to Black Grouse, 77 were caught and radiotagged between 2002 and 2004, and each was randomly assigned to one of three experimental disturbance categories: no disturbance (low), fortnightly disturbance (moderate) or twice weekly disturbance (high). Birds that were disturbed more regularly flushed at greater distances, especially in spring and winter when birds exposed to high disturbance flushed at 32% greater distances than those in moderate disturbance treatments. There were no differences in fecundity (clutch size, hatching success, breeding success) or survival between disturbance treatments. Winter survival was 78% and summer survival 92%. There was no age‐related difference in survival. The disturbance regimes imposed had no discernible impact upon Black Grouse population dynamics. However, in the absence of appropriate data to indicate likely changes in patterns and levels of human recreation resulting from open access, we cannot be sure whether the levels we applied will be representative in the future. Should actual disturbance levels be higher than those we used in this study, we list visitor management options that may help reduce any conflict that arises.

What effects do walkers and dogs have on the distribution and productivity of breeding European Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus?

Several successive studies of European Nightjars Caprimulgus europaeus (hereafter, Nightjar) on the Dorset heaths demonstrated negative effects of the proximity of urban development and associated disturbance from access on foot by people and dogs. Surrogate measures of human density and settlement, including the amount of developed land around each heathland patch and the number of houses, were significantly and negatively related to the density of Nightjars (using data from the 1992 national survey) on heathland patches, regardless of patch size. These findings prompted targeted field studies, the subject of this paper, which investigated the mechanisms and effects of recreational disturbance on breeding Nightjars. Fieldwork in 2002 focused on a suite of heathland sites representing a range of access from sites closed to the public to heaths heavily used for recreation, notably by dog walkers. Studies in 2003 concentrated on the heavily used heaths. Nests which failed were significantly closer to paths, tended to be closer to the main points of access to heaths, in areas with higher footpath density, notably of high levels of use, and in more sparsely vegetated locations. The proximate cause of nest failure was most frequently egg predation. Nest cameras, deployed in 2003 in an attempt to identify the predators of eggs or chicks, recorded just one instance of predation, that of an egg by a Carrion Crow Corvus corone, and two instances of the incubating bird being flushed by a dog, once from an egg and once from a chick, neither event preventing fledging. Flushing rate of Nightjars from the nest was associated with the height of vegetation around the nest and the extent of nest cover. The studies indicate that access disturbance interacts with environmental conditions for breeding birds. Birds flush more readily from eggs, which are highly visible when exposed, especially in areas with sparse nest cover, leaving them vulnerable to predation. Although Nightjar flushing rates were observed to be low in 2003, just one event leading to predation is enough to end that nesting attempt. Management measures are recommended to minimize the effects of walkers and their dogs on Nightjars.

Testing the effects of recreational disturbance on two upland breeding waders

Previous work has shown that Golden Plovers Pluvialis apricaria guarding chicks utilize heavily disturbed habitat at a lower rate than surrounding areas, but that such rates of avoidance are reduced when the movement of people is restricted to a surfaced footpath. However, there remained some unanswered questions, which are addressed in this paper. First, we examine to what extent habitat avoidance is dependent upon visitor numbers, and find no evidence that Golden Plovers avoided disturbed areas at a site where visitor pressure was half that previously studied. Secondly, we examine whether these relationships between habitat occupancy and disturbance apply to other upland waders and find that Dunlin Calidris alpina habitat utilization in disturbed areas showed a non‐significant increase of approximately 50% following the provision of a surfaced footpath, in a manner similar to that observed for Golden Plover. Thirdly, we examine whether the large numbers of visitors (120 per weekend day) using the surfaced footpath impact on Golden Plover breeding success, despite the lack of habitat avoidance. There was no evidence that nest location, clutch survival or chick growth rates were reduced close to the footpath. Together, these results suggest that high levels of disturbance can impact upon habitat usage by upland waders, but only in limited circumstances where visitor pressure is very high (greater than at least 30 visitors per weekend day). However, access to such areas can be permitted for large numbers of visitors without impacting upon wader reproductive performance through the provision of a well‐surfaced route.

Vertebrates respond differently to human disturbance: implications for the use of a focal species approach

Focal species are surrogates assuming that all species under consideration respond similarly to the threatening processes. Focusing management only on a small number of species would improve conditions for other species. However, the across-taxa congruency of the response to threatening processes, and the subsequent efficiency of focal species as surrogates, has seldom been tested. In this study, we evaluated the effects of recreational disturbance and wood structure on the communities of terrestrial vertebrates in the wood patches of a large urban park. We measured two effects of recreation: direct disturbance (people presence) and litter disturbance (effect of trampling). We used multiple techniques to assess the distribution of small mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians in 44 wood patches. Disturbance and wood maturity influenced the distribution of some species and the species richness of amphibians and reptiles; however, the pattern was not consistent across species within classes or among classes. The performance of focal species as a multi species umbrella was poor. Our results suggest that species specific differences in the response to the same source of disturbance can be strong; these differences can hinder the usefulness of focal species as surrogates and as a management tool.

Linking recreational disturbance to population size in a ground‐nesting passerine

Summary There is often a perceived conflict between recreational access and wildlife conservation. Although many studies have investigated the potential effects on birds, this is the first study to demonstrate an impact of recreational disturbance on population size. We studied the impact of disturbance on a woodlark Lullula arborea population on 16 heathland sites in southern England. These sites all had historical records of breeding woodlarks and together encompassed a range of visitor‐access levels. A logistic regression model of patch use was used to quantify the area of habitat suitable for woodlarks. Woodlarks favoured patches with substantial proportions of bare ground and short vegetation. Across heaths, woodlark density (per hectare of suitable habitat) was lower on sites with higher levels of disturbance. Within heaths with recreational access, the probability of suitable habitat being colonized was lower in those areas with greater disturbance and was reduced to below 50% at around eight disturbance events per hour. There was no relationship between disturbance and daily nest survival rates. Birds on heaths with higher levels of disturbance fledged more chicks (per pair) because of a strong density‐dependent increase in reproductive output. A model is presented that predicts the consequences for the woodlark population of a range of access scenarios. The impact on the population depends on both the numbers of people and their spatial distribution. Under current access arrangements, a doubling of visitor numbers has little effect, while the same number of people distributed evenly across all sites leads to a major negative impact on the population. Density‐dependent breeding success partially balances the negative effects of disturbance; however, we calculated that there is currently a 17% reduction in productivity compared with that predicted in the absence of disturbance. Synthesis and applications. Many previous studies have stressed the negative effects of recreational disturbance on birds’ behaviour, distribution and breeding success. However, from a conservation viewpoint, the impact at the population level is of paramount importance. Modelling the population‐scale consequences of alternative access scenarios will help policymakers develop appropriate mitigation measures.

Productivity of Black Oystercatchers: Effects of Recreational Disturbance in a National Park

Abstract National parks in Alaska are generally assumed to be high-quality, undisturbed wildlife habitats. However, these parks attract recreational users, whose presence may reduce the suitability of key habitats for nesting shorebirds. In Kenai Fjords National Park, Black Oystercatchers (Haematopus bachmani) often breed on gravel beaches that are also popular campsites. In this study, we examined the effects of recreational activities in coastal Alaska on reproductive performance of Black Oystercatchers. We monitored survival of nests and chicks on 35 to 39 breeding territories annually during four breeding seasons (2001–2004). Most recreational disturbance on these territories occurred after the peak hatching date of first clutches. Annual productivity was low (average of 0.35 chicks per pair), but was not strongly affected by recreational disturbance. Daily survival of nests varied annually and declined over the season. Our results suggest that nest survival was lower during periods of extreme high tides. Daily survival rate of broods increased over the season and was higher on island than mainland territories, likely due to differences in predator communities. Territory occupancy rate and site fidelity were high; 95% of color-banded oystercatchers returned to the same breeding territory in the subsequent year. We conclude that Black Oystercatchers are resilient to low levels of recreational disturbance. However, in light of projected increases in recreation, we suggest managers move campsites away from the traditional nest sites identified in this study to minimize future disturbances.

PRODUCTIVITY OF BLACK OYSTERCATCHERS: EFFECTS OF RECREATIONAL DISTURBANCE IN A NATIONAL PARK

Abstract National parks in Alaska are generally assumed to be high-quality, undisturbed wildlife habitats. However, these parks attract recreational users, whose presence may reduce the suitability of key habitats for nesting shorebirds. In Kenai Fjords National Park, Black Oystercatchers (Haematopus bachmani) often breed on gravel beaches that are also popular campsites. In this study, we examined the effects of recreational activities in coastal Alaska on reproductive performance of Black Oystercatchers. We monitored survival of nests and chicks on 35 to 39 breeding territories annually during four breeding seasons (2001–2004). Most recreational disturbance on these territories occurred after the peak hatching date of first clutches. Annual productivity was low (average of 0.35 chicks per pair), but was not strongly affected by recreational disturbance. Daily survival of nests varied annually and declined over the season. Our results suggest that nest survival was lower during periods of extreme high ti...

Restoration of Breeding by Snowy Plovers Following Protection from Disturbance

Promoting recreation and preserving wildlife are often dual missions for land managers, yet recreation may impact wildlife. Because individual disturbances are seemingly inconsequential, it is difficult to convince the public that there is a conservation value to restricting recreation to reduce disturbance. We studied threatened western snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus nivosus) at a public beach (Sands Beach, Coal Oil Point Reserve) in Santa Barbara, California (USA) before and during a period when a barrier directed foot traffic away from a section of upper beach where snowy plovers roost. The barrier reduced disturbance rates by more than half. Snowy plovers increased in abundance (throughout the season) and their distribution contracted to within the protected area. Snowy plovers that were outside the protected area in the morning moved inside as people began using the beach. Experiments with quail eggs indicated an 8% daily risk of nest trampling outside the protected area. Before protection, plovers did not breed at Coal Oil Point. During protection, snowy plovers bred in increasing numbers each year and had high success at fledging young. These results demonstrate how recreational disturbance can degrade habitat for shorebirds and that protecting quality habitat may have large benefits for wildlife and small impacts to recreation.

EFFECTS OF HUMAN RECREATION ON THE INCUBATION BEHAVIOR OF AMERICAN OYSTERCATCHERS

Human recreational disturbance and its effects on wildlife demographics and behavior is an increasingly important area of research. We monitored the nesting success of American Oystercatchers (Haematopus palliatus) in coastal North Carolina in 2002 and 2003. We also used video monitoring at nests to measure the response of incubating birds to human recreation. We counted the number of trips per hour made by adult birds to and from the nest, and we calculated the percent time that adults spent incubating. We asked whether human recreational activities (truck, all-terrain vehicle ;obATV;cb, and pedestrian traffic) were correlated with parental behavioral patterns. Eleven a priori models of nest survival and behavioral covariates were evaluated using Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) to see whether incubation behavior influenced nest survival. Factors associated with birds leaving their nests (n = 548) included ATV traffic (25%), truck traffic (17%), pedestrian traffic (4%), aggression with neighboring oystercatchers or paired birds exchanging incubation duties (26%), airplane traffic (1%) and unknown factors (29%). ATV traffic was positively associated with the rate of trips to and away from the nest (β1 = 0.749, P < 0.001) and negatively correlated with percent time spent incubating (β1 = −0.037, P = 0.025). Other forms of human recreation apparently had little effect on incubation behaviors. Nest survival models incorporating the frequency of trips by adults to and from the nest, and the percentage of time adults spent incubating, were somewhat supported in the AIC analyses. A low frequency of trips to and from the nest and, counter to expectations, low percent time spent incubating were associated with higher daily nest survival rates. These data suggest that changes in incubation behavior might be one mechanism by which human recreation affects the reproductive success of American Oystercatchers.

Athyrium distentifolium Tausch ex Opiz (A. alpestre (Hoppe) Rylands ex T. Moore‐non‐Clairv.) including A. distentifolium var. flexile (Newman) Jermy

Woodsiaceae. Athyrium distentifolium, Alpine lady-fern. Fronds bi-pinnate, ovate-lanceolate, yellow-green 20 cm to over 100 cm, arising in a 'shuttlecock' from a central crown. Stipe straight, one fifth to one quarter the length of the blade with pale brown scales, usually broad, but occasionally narrow. Pinnae widely spaced near base of the frond, and sometimes deflexed, crowded near the tip, meeting the rachis at an angle of 900 at the midpoint of the blade, or slightly ascending. Pinnules broadest at the base, tapering to a point. Sori circular, with irregular filaments making up a rudimentary indusium when young, soon obscured as the sori grow. Sori concentrated in the upper part of the frond, becoming sparse towards the base. Number of sori varies with size of frond. Plants frequently infertile (McHaffie et al. 2002). Athyrium distentifolium var.flexile Newman's lady-fern. Fronds bi-pinnate, narrow, blue-green, 10-40 cm, arising from a central crown, erect or sharply angled near the base of the rachis to lie nearly flat against the substrate. Stipe short, one sixth to one eighth the length of the blade, often densely covered with broad, pale scales that may continue beyond the midpoint of the blade. Blade broadest near the base, or nearer the mid-point. Pinnae close together near base of frond, often strongly deflexed to at least half way up the frond. Uppermost pinnae widely spaced. Pinnules taper towards the base. Sori circular, sometimes with only a few sporangia; rudimentary indusium visible while the sorus is still immature. Sori concentrated at base of the frond, becoming less frequent towards the tip. Plants usually fertile (McHaffie et al. 2002). Athyrium distentifolium is a chionophilous fern that grows at altitudes or latitudes which ensure long-lying winter snow cover. Deep snow provides insulation from severe winters, and prevents early growth in a mild spring. Only a limited number of species can tolerate these conditions and this reduces competition. Although previously known as a Scandinavian and continental European species, A. distentifolium was not recognized in Britain until 1844 (Newman 1851). Within Britain it is found only in Scotland where it is confined to the remote Highlands. Soon after it was identified, another similar taxon of uncertain taxonomic status was described (Backhouse 1852). Subsequent research has determined that this is a recessive variety which is now known as A. distentifolium var.flexile. Both taxa are covered in this account.

Disturbance of suburban Fagus forests by recreational activities: Effects on soil characteristics, above‐ground vegetation and seed bank

AbstractQuestions: How does recreational disturbance (human trampling) affect soil characteristics, the performance of the understorey vegetation, and the density and species composition of the soil seed bank in Fagus sylvatica forests?Location: Suburban forests near Basel, northwestern Switzerland.Methods: We compared various soil characteristics and the performance of the understorey vegetation in six beech forest areas frequently disturbed by recreational activities with those in six undisturbed control areas, in spring 2003. In the same forest areas, the soil seed bank was investigated using the seedling emergence method. Samples were obtained from soil cores in January 2003.Results: We found substantial changes in soil compaction, above‐ground vegetation and in the soil seed bank due to recreational activities. In frequently visited areas, soil compaction was enhanced which caused a decrease in cover, height and species richness of both herb and shrub layers. Compared with control areas, the number of trampling‐tolerant species of the seed bank was significantly higher in disturbed areas, and total species richness tended to be higher in disturbed than in control areas. Furthermore, the similarity in species composition between the above‐ground vegetation and seed bank was significant lower in disturbed than in control areas.Conclusions: The intensive use of suburban forests for recreational activities, mainly picnicking, affects the vegetation of natural beech forests. Our study indicates that a restoration of degraded forest areas from the soil seed bank would result in a substantial change of the vegetation composition.

Disturbance of suburban Fagus forests by recreational activities: Effects on soil characteristics, above-ground vegetation and seed bank

Abstract Questions: How does recreational disturbance (human trampling) affect soil characteristics, the performance of the understorey vegetation, and the density and species composition of the soil seed bank in Fagus sylvatica forests? Location: Suburban forests near Basel, northwestern Switzerland. Methods: We compared various soil characteristics and the performance of the understorey vegetation in six beech forest areas frequently disturbed by recreational activities with those in six undisturbed control areas, in spring 2003. In the same forest areas, the soil seed bank was investigated using the seedling emergence method. Samples were obtained from soil cores in January 2003. Results: We found substantial changes in soil compaction, above-ground vegetation and in the soil seed bank due to recreational activities. In frequently visited areas, soil compaction was enhanced which caused a decrease in cover, height and species richness of both herb and shrub layers. Compared with control areas, the numb...