Recovery Efficiency Research Articles

Enhancing Pb Adsorption on Crushed Microplastics: Insights into the Environmental Remediation

This study investigates the pollution characteristics and environmental risks of crushed microplastics (MPs) generated during plastic recycling, emphasizing their adsorption capacity for heavy metals, particularly lead (Pb). SEM-EDS analysis revealed that crushed MPs exhibit significantly higher adsorption capacity than primary MPs due to their larger surface area and more available adsorption sites, including oxygen-containing functional groups. The adsorption behavior of MPs was influenced by key factors such as MP size, MP quantity, pH, salinity, and biofilm formation. Smaller MPs demonstrated higher adsorption efficiency, while elevated pH enhanced Pb adsorption. Conversely, increased salinity reduced adsorption due to competition for adsorption sites. Increasing MP concentrations improved Pb removal efficiency, but higher MP quantities led to a decrease in maximum adsorption capacity, demonstrating a trade-off between removal efficiency and adsorption capacity. Isothermal adsorption experiments revealed that Pb adsorption on MPs follows a multi-layer mechanism, best characterized by the Freundlich model. The adsorption capacity increased nonlinearly with Pb concentration and stabilized as surface sites became saturated. The formation of biofilms on MPs further enhanced their adsorption capacity by providing additional functional groups and facilitating multi-layer adsorption, increasing ecological risks. Adsorption kinetics were best described by pseudo-second-order and intra-particle diffusion models, indicating chemical adsorption and boundary layer diffusion as dominant mechanisms. Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles demonstrated a high recovery efficiency of 99.3% for MPs, highlighting their potential for environmental remediation. However, the presence of adsorbed Pb slightly reduced recovery performance, emphasizing the need to optimize recovery conditions for maximum efficiency. These findings underscore the dual threat posed by crushed MPs: their capacity to adsorb and concentrate harmful substances, increasing ecological toxicity, and the challenges associated with their recovery. This research provides critical insights into mitigating MP pollution and developing effective recovery strategies under realistic environmental conditions.

Experimental Investigation of CO2 Huff-and-Puff Enhanced Oil Recovery in Fractured Low-Permeability Reservoirs: Core-Scale to Pore-Scale

To understand the impact of CO2 huff-and-puff on oil mobilization in tight reservoirs with varying fracture scales, we performed nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and microscopic visualization experiments, focusing on different fracture sizes and multi-scale fracture conditions. Our study investigates how different fracture sizes and densities influence the efficiency of CO2 huff-and-puff techniques in these environments. The results show that in scenarios with a single fracture, larger fracture apertures significantly boost oil mobilization within the fracture and the surrounding matrix. For instance, increasing the aperture from 20 μm to 70 μm improved the recovery factor by 9.20%. In environments with multiple fractures, greater fracture density enhances reservoir connectivity, and increases the CO2 sweep area, and the complex fracture model shows a 4.26% increase in matrix utilization compared to the simple fracture model. Notably, the improvement in recovery due to multi-scale fractures is most significant during the first two huff-and-puff cycles, with diminishing returns in subsequent cycles. Overall, increasing both fracture size and density effectively enhances crude oil mobilization in tight reservoirs. These findings provide valuable insights into improving the recovery efficiency of CO2 huff-and-puff techniques in tight oil reservoirs.

A comparative study on the industrial flotation performance of fine coal using conventional and turbulent microbubble mechanical flotation cells

ABSTRACT Fine coal frequently exhibits complications such as diminished recovery and compromised selectivity in the flotation process. This study presents a novel reactor/separator dual-stage flotation device, the turbulent microbubble mechanical flotation cell (TMFC), on the basis of the principles of forced mineralization and static separation. The TMFC implemented in industrial settings was carried out, facilitating a comparative analysis with a conventional mechanical flotation machine (XJM) to elucidate the flotation behavior across particles of varying sizes. In terms of recovery efficiency, the TMFC significantly increased the concentrated yield by 3.29% while simultaneously increasing the ash in the tailings by 10.59%. This enhancement is attributed to the more vigorous turbulent environment within the TMFC, which helps in transforming bubbles into microbubbles, synergistically boosting collision and adhesion. In terms of selectivity, the flotation selectivity index for the −75 μm significantly improved, especially for the −45 μm, which surpassed that of XJM by 10.79%. The intense turbulent conditions in the TMFC generated a scrubbing effect that efficiently reduced the coating, significantly enhancing the quality of the concentrate. This research evaluated the industrial performance of the TMFC in fine particle flotation, proposing a novel technical approach for significant desulfurization and ash reduction in fine coal.

CULTAN Fertilization Contributes to Lower N Leaching While Maintaining Yield

ABSTRACTBackgroundThe controlled uptake long‐term ammonium nutrition (CULTAN) fertilization technique consists of injecting a concentrated ammonium solution into the soil and aims to positively impact crop physiology and N use efficiency.AimsThis study assesses whether CULTAN can contribute to lower N leaching while maintaining yields in temperate regions with an annual precipitation of around 1000 mm or higher.MethodsWe analyzed a 12‐year lysimeter experiment with two consecutive 6‐crop rotations and a 3‐year field experiment with winter wheat and maize in Switzerland. CULTAN was compared to a conventional surface application of ammonium nitrate fertilizer (ConvF).ResultsCULTAN achieved at least similar yields compared to ConvF in both studies and had a 38% lower yield‐scaled N leaching in the lysimeters. In both studies, CULTAN displayed higher nitrogen recovery efficiency (NRE) compared to ConvF, with an increase ranging from 8% to 17% depending on crop type, although a statistical significance was only found for winter wheat in the field study. NRE and N leaching were only weakly correlated, indicating that other N pathways are affected in the CULTAN fertilization system. Finally, we suggest that the timing and placement of the CULTAN injection need to be better adapted to the plant physiology and pedoclimatic conditions for optimal nutrient use and crop yields.ConclusionIn areas of high nitrate concentration in the groundwater, CULTAN can be an effective fertilization strategy complementing loss reduction measures.

Recycling Through Comminution: Characterization, Separation and Recycling Barriers of Metal Coated Polymers and Metallized Polymer Foams

The increasing global demand for raw materials underscores the importance of lightweight construction and sustainable material use, drawing attention to composite techniques like galvanic coating of plastics. To support recycling efforts, the development of efficient separation and material recovery processes is critical, particularly for end-of-life products containing metal-plated polymers. This study investigates the recyclability of metallized polymer foams and coated polymers through comminution, focusing on the potential for effective separation of metal and polymer components. Cu-ABS samples showed 27% of the products in the 8–10 mm fraction and 48% in the 10–16 mm fraction during primary comminution, while Cu-PUR achieved a more even distribution. Microscopic analyses revealed decoating rates of up to 95% for Cu-ABS compared to 19% for Cu-PUR. The comminution energy required for Cu-PUR was three times higher, with a fivefold lower decoating rate than solid materials. Particles larger than 200 µm exhibited interlocking, complicating the separation process. These findings highlight the need for optimized recycling processes to enable efficient raw material recovery and support a circular economy.

Sample Preparation for Metabolomic Analysis in Exercise Physiology

Metabolomics investigates final and intermediate metabolic products in cells. Assessment of the human metabolome relies principally on the analysis of blood, urine, saliva, sweat, and feces. Tissue biopsy is employed less frequently. Understanding the metabolite composition of biosamples from athletes can significantly improve our knowledge of molecular processes associated with the efficiency of training and recovery. Such knowledge may also lead to new management opportunities. Successful execution of metabolomic studies requires simultaneous qualitative and quantitative analyses of numerous small biomolecules in samples under test. Unlike genomics and proteomics, which do not allow for direct assessment of enzymatic activity, metabolomics focuses on biochemical phenotypes, providing unique information about health and physiological features. Crucial factors in ensuring the efficacy of metabolomic analysis are the meticulous selection and pre-treatment of samples.

A UV-Protective Textile Coating Based on Recycled Poly(vinyl butyral) (PVB): A New Life for a Waste Polymer

Polyvinyl butyral (PVB) is a high-performance thermoplastic polymer, commonly used as an interlayer material in laminated safety glass for the automotive and architectural sectors. Currently, there is no end-of-life cycle program for a substantial amount of PVB film, which mainly ends up in landfills. According to a circular approach, PVB can be revalorized after efficient separation and recovery from glass. Thus, the aim of this work was to develop functional coatings for textile applications using recycled PVB (re-PVB), also in combination with an organic UV absorber, to enable the production of UV-protective final coated fabrics. The re-PVB-coated fabrics were obtained through an industrially scalable spraying process (leading to an average weight increase of 20 ± 3 wt.%), and the effectiveness of the application was evaluated according to different characterization techniques, such as FT-IR (Fourier transform–infrared) spectroscopy, SEM (scanning electron microscope), a washing test, a mechanical test, a thermo-physiological test, and the ultraviolet protection factor (UPF). Based on the results, the re-PVB-coated fabrics appeared stable upon washing (with a negligible weight loss compared to the average amount of coating) and effective in UV protection (with a final UPF being four times higher and a reduced UVA transmittance from 2.0% to 0.6%).

Semi-Continuous Microwave-Assisted Oil Extraction and Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Butia Odorata Seeds: Efficient Recovery of Oil and Fermentable Sugars in a Sequential Method

Semi-Continuous Microwave-Assisted Oil Extraction and Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Butia Odorata Seeds: Efficient Recovery of Oil and Fermentable Sugars in a Sequential Method

Towards phosphorus circularity: biofilm EBPR with subsequent struvite production at the Hias WWTP: insights from full-scale laboratory testing

ABSTRACT The Hias wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) has developed a novel biological removal process (the Hias Process) and now operates at full scale. Additionally, a struvite reactor is installed to capture phosphorus. The Hias WWTP aims to reduce its CO2 footprint and move towards circularity by recovering influent phosphorus as a struvite fertilizer and increasing plant availability of phosphorus in biosolids. The main factors affecting recovery include the use of precipitation metals and bypass of the enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) treatment, as well as temperature's impact on PO4 release from EBPR sludge. The Hias Process, which combines EBPR and moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR), has demonstrated stability and effectiveness even in cold climates and during stormwater events. The Hias Process reduced the use of precipitation chemicals, leading to a lower carbon footprint. This combination of EBPR and MBBR also contributes to increased phosphorus circularity. That is achieved through improved plant availability of phosphorus in biosolids and the production of struvite. This study aligns with Sustainable Development Goals and emphasizes efficient phosphorus recovery through the Hias Process, P-stripper, and struvite reactor.

From Physiology to Psychology: A Multidimensional Analysis of Recovery Strategies for Young Athletes

Young athletes are often at risk of physical fatigue and injury during intense competition and training, making post-competition rehabilitation particularly important. Effective rehabilitation not only helps them regain strength and reduce the likelihood of injury, but also improves overall athletic performance. Science-based post-competition rehabilitation can help young-athletes maintain good physical condition, extend their athletic careers, and enhance their academic and athletic performance. This paper analyzes the effectiveness of post-competition recovery strategies in improving the athletic performance of young athletes, focusing on physiological, physical, and psychological recovery methods. It emphasizes the importance of proper nutrition and rest for physiological recovery, highlighting their role in muscle repair and energy replenishment. Physical recovery strategies such as stretching, massage, and low-intensity activities were examined to understand the benefits of these strategies in relieving muscle tension and improving flexibility. The study also explored mental recovery techniques, including relaxation exercises and psychological support, to understand their impact on stress management and mental resilience. This research highlights the significance of employing a multifaceted approach to recovery techniques in order to enhance overall performance. By adopting efficient recovery protocols, athletes are able to attain superior recovery outcomes, boost their competitive advantage, and potentially prolong their athletic careers. The manuscript advocates for additional investigations to fine-tune these strategies and assess their long-term advantages for sustained athletic success.

A sustainable approach for concurrent recovery of metals from H2 reduced bauxite residue (“red mud”): Process optimization

Bauxite residue (BR), a polymetallic waste, offers significant potential for valuable metal recovery. This study introduces a low temperature H2 reduction-alkaline (NaOH) roasting, followed by water leaching - wet magnetic separation, aimed at efficient recovery of Fe, Na, and Al, alongside non-magnetic tailings (Ca, Ti, and Si). To minimize H2 consumption, 5 vol % H2 + 95 vol % N2 with 200 L/kg was sufficient. Utilizing response surface methodology (RSM), the optimal H2 reduction process conditions were determined as a temperature of 600 °C and a time of 120 min with 20 wt% NaOH. Under these conditions, the maximum recoveries achieved were 74.4 % Fe (grade = 63.6 %), 84.6 % Al, and 91.6 % Na, with RSM model predicted Fe, Al, and Na recovery values at optimum conditions closely matching experimental results (<5 % deviation). The proposed sustainable process minimizes waste and offers a possible solution for BR processing.

Fault Tolerance Management Implementation from Medium-to-Large-Scale Networks

As network infrastructures grow in complexity, ensuring high availability and resilience becomes critical, especially for medium-to-large scale networks. This study focuses on the development and implementation of fault tolerance management within Software-defined networking (SDN) environments, aimed at minimizing downtime and enhancing network reliability. SDN’s centralized control and dynamic programmability provide an ideal framework for implementing efficient fault detection and recovery mechanisms. The proposed model leverages real-time monitoring, redundancy protocols, and adaptive rerouting strategies to mitigate the impact of node or link failures. Key components of the model include failover mechanisms, load balancing, and traffic rerouting algorithms, designed to maintain seamless network operations during failures. Through simulation and testing, the model demonstrates significant improvements in network resilience, reducing recovery time and ensuring uninterrupted service delivery. This research provides a comprehensive guide to implementing fault-tolerant networks using SDN, offering scalable solutions that can be adapted to various network sizes and configurations. The findings emphasize the potential of SDN to revolutionize fault management in modern network infrastructures, making it a crucial consideration for future network design and operations.

Experimental Study on the Alternate Oil Displacement Mechanism of CO2 and Modified Water in Low-Permeability Oil Layers

Alternating carbon dioxide and water flooding can not only seal greenhouse gases, but also combine the advantages of water flooding and carbon dioxide flooding, and can well control mobility and stabilize the displacement front, thereby greatly improving the macro-replacing efficiency. In order to further improve the development effect of water–carbon dioxide alternating flooding, this paper, based on sufficient collection of the literature, research, and analysis, pre-uses modified water instead of water, and deeply explores and studies the impact of modified water–carbon dioxide alternating flooding on the improvement of development effect and the mechanism of enhancing oil recovery in low-permeability reservoirs. The main work completed is as follows: (1) A comparative experiment of multiple groups of sand-filled tubes with different displacement media, modified water concentrations, and injection plug sizes was conducted under the conditions of simulating reservoir formation temperature of 70 °C and formation pressure of 18 MPa, and the optimal scheme and injection parameters of alternating modified water and carbon dioxide flooding were rationally selected. The results show that the alternating flooding of modified water and carbon dioxide in low-permeability reservoirs can significantly improve the development effect. The optimal injection parameters are a formulation concentration of 0.3% and an injection method of alternating a 0.1 PV slug injection of carbon dioxide and modified water. (2) Using Berea cores instead of sand-fill tubes, a comparative experiment of alternating oil displacement using carbon dioxide and modified water was carried out under the same experimental conditions. Nuclear magnetic resonance measurements were performed on five of the cores to analyze the microscopic oil displacement mechanisms of different displacement media. The results show the following: nuclear magnetic resonance testing shows that carbon dioxide displacement can greatly improve the oil recovery efficiency in tiny pores (about 47.43%); alternating injection can further improve the oil recovery efficiency in tiny pores (about 70.6%); and modified water can improve the oil recovery efficiency in larger pores (about 56.47%).

Improving coalbed methane recovery in fragmented soft coal seams with horizontal cased well cavitation

Effective coalbed methane extraction from soft coal seams is essential for mine safety and energy supply. To enhance the extraction efficiency of coal mine methane (CMM) and reduce the risk of gas outbursts in coal mining areas, we developed an original and innovate horizontal well hydraulic cavitation method. A mathematical model that can quantitatively optimize construction parameters and improve the effectiveness of engineering applications was also constructed to calculate the technological parameters of this construction method. This technology differs from traditional approaches by relying on hydraulic erosion rather than water jets, and it can be implemented in cased horizontal wells. Utilizing the mathematical model grounded in porous media theory and Darcy’s law, numerical simulations with COMSOL Multiphysics were conducted and construction parameters optimized. The proposed technology significantly advances safe and efficient coalbed methane recovery, benefiting coal mine safety and environmental sustainability.

Optimal pricing and collection decisions in a two-period closed-loop supply chain considering channel inconvenience

Improving recovery efficiency is a key concern for collectors in a closed-loop supply chain (CLSC) with remanufacturing, as customers often consider the inconvenience of recycling channels when returning used products. This issue profoundly affects collectors’ capacity to recover materials. In a two-period CLSC with remanufacturing, including a manufacturer and a retailer, we develop game-theoretical models in the centralized and decentralized scenarios and compare the optimal solutions, consumer surplus, social welfare and environmental impact of different models through analytical and numerical analysis. Our aim is to examine firms’ dynamic pricing strategies and collection investment decisions by considering customers’ perception of channel inconvenience. There are four main findings. Firstly, in the centralized model and the retailer collection model, the decision-maker lowers the retail price in the first period. However, in the competitive collection model, the manufacturer and the retailer raise the wholesale and retail prices in the first period, respectively. Secondly, in the retailer collection model, as the recycling revenue increases, the manufacturer, although not involved in collecting, the profit also increases due to the free-rider behavior. Thirdly, in the competitive collection model, when the remanufacturing cost savings is relatively high, the collection investment of the manufacturer is much larger than that of the retailer, resulting in the retailer failing to collect any product and giving up collecting. Finally, the collection competition improves the total collection rate and environmental performance but reduces the profit of the manufacturer and the retailer, as well as the consumer surplus and social welfare. Therefore, we design a two-part tariff contract to coordinate the decentralized model and effectively improve the performance of the supply chain.

Tracing nitrogen use efficiency of diverse Canadian spring wheat cultivars

Decades of wheat breeding have provided growers with numerous high-yielding options, but it is unknown if these yield improvements are likewise characterized with improved nitrogen use efficiency (NUE). Fertilizer nitrogen (N) is an ever-increasing expense, so improving NUE by reducing the requirement for N fertilizer without risking yield and quality is necessary. The goal of our research is to identify cultivars and associated traits that may improve NUE while maintaining productivity. We compared 25 spring wheat cultivars over a three-year period (2020, 2021, 2022) at two field sites differing in background soil N level for the ability to use fertilizer-N and allocate it to the grain. To do so, we employed the 15N stable isotope technique to trace the flow of fertilizer-N and determine the 15N recovery efficiency (15NRE). The 15NRE in the grain averaged 25.0% at the higher soil N site, and 15.5% at the lower soil N site. At the higher soil N site only, dwarfing alleles (Rht-B1b) were associated with greater 15NRE. Grain 15NRE was positively associated with yield, grain N content, and the 15N harvest index (15NHI) at the high soil N environment, but never at the low soil N environment. Our findings support the notion that the genetic development of high yielding semi-dwarf cultivars also translates into an improved ability to recover fertilizer-N—but this outcome is only expressed only under rich soil N conditions. Cultivars that simultaneously produced higher 15NRE and yields, grain N, or 15NHI differed by environment; possibly suggesting different mechanisms for improving crop NUE depending on background soil N level. Ultimately, cultivar-specific 15NRE information, including that presented here, will be useful breeders to design new crosses and approaches aimed at increasing NUE for spring wheat.

Chemical-free electrochemical system with membrane cathode assembly Enables efficient ammonia recovery from urine

The extraction of ammonia from waste sources, such as urine, presents significant potential for its utilization as fertilizers and chemical precursors. Conventional recovery techniques, such as air stripping and chemical precipitation, face limitations due to their high energy demands and substantial chemical usage. Although electrochemical alternatives offer improved selectivity for ammonia recovery, they remain constrained by slow ammonia mass transfer. In this work, we have designed an electrochemical system incorporating a parallel plate stack design with a membrane electrode assembly. This innovation leverages the benefits of electrochemical base production coupled with rapid ammonia separation and recovery from urine. The system achieved an ammonia removal rate of 19.4 g-N m−2h−1, with removal and recovery efficiencies recorded at 72.7 % and 93.5 %, respectively, while consuming 19.5 kWh per kg-N. The system’s performance and robustness were then evaluated using real urine. Over 96 h of continuous operation, at an ammonia removal rate of 14.5 g-N m−2h−1 and an energy consumption of 33.1 kWh per kg-N, the removal and recovery efficiencies stabilized at 84.2 % and 78.4 %, respectively. The chemical scale that formed on the assembly was easily removed using a 0.1 M citric acid solution. Overall, the findings underscore the critical role of the nickel-based membrane cathode assembly in achieving chemical-free and efficient ammonia separation and recovery from urine, which may facilitate broader applications of membrane electrode assemblies in waste management and related fields.

Molecular insight into algae-derived dissolved organic matters via Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry: Effects of pretreatment methods and electrospray ionization modes

The release of algae-derived dissolved organic matter (ADOM) significantly increased in serious eutrophication waters, posing great threats to drinking water safety. Thus, the molecular composition decipherment is urgently in need. However, due to unsatisfactory pretreatment and ionization effects, the application of Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS) on ADOM was limited. Therefore, the effects of pretreatment methods (cartridge type and loading) during solid-phase extraction (SPE) and electrospray ionization (ESI) modes with FT-ICR-MS on the molecular composition of ADOM were evaluated. The results showed compared with silica-based octadecyl (C18) cartridge, styrene-divinylbenzene polymer (PPL) cartridge exhibited higher recovery efficiency and retained more saturated and oxygenated compounds, such as carbohydrate-like and tannin-like. Furthermore, the recovery efficiency decreased with increasing loading, and hydrophilic and high-oxygenated carbohydrate-like and tannin-like were continuously replaced by hydrophobic and low-oxygenated aliphatic and aromatic compounds. Moreover, compared to negative ESI mode, the addition of positive ESI mode increased the molecular chemodiversity, especially more lipid-like and protein-like compounds. Thus, we proposed < 1:500 DOC/PPL mass ratio during SPE and dual ESI modes coupled with FT-ICR-MS could identify ADOM molecules more comprehensively. This work contributes to more comprehensive understanding of the molecular composition of ADOM and provides more references for pretreatment and characterization strategies of severely eutrophic waters.

Construction of low-vacancy hexagonal Prussian blue analogues for efficient rubidium recovery

Prussian blue analogues (PBAs) are considered a promising adsorbent for rubidium recovery due to their high ion exchange capacity and selectivity. However, the development of PBAs-based rubidium adsorbents with excellent stability and adsorption capacity is still hindered by the inevitable CN ligand vacancies. Herein, a synthetic strategy is proposed to slow down crystal nucleation and promote the self-repair of crystal defects by incorporating N-doped porous carbon (NPC) as a solid modifier during the synthesis process. As a result, the vacancy content of Zn-PBA-NPC is significantly decreased and large size twinned crystals are produced, which remarkably improves the thermal and acid-base stability. Benefiting from the high content of K+ in the low-vacancy Zn-PBA-NPC, it achieves a high adsorption amount of 199.1 mg/g and rapid adsorption kinetics of just 5 min for Rb+. In addition, it shows good selectivity in the presence of other alkali metal ions. This work not only prepares a high-performance adsorbent for efficient recovery of Rb+, but also facilitates insights into the design and construction of low-vacancy PBAs.

Two-step process to recover metal and mineral residues from municipal solid waste incinerated (MSWI) ashes

The utilization potential of mineral fractions after metal recovery from fly ash and air pollution control residues from a municipal solid waste incineration plant was studied. Chemical leaching using acidic (H2SO4), and alkaline (NaOH) solutions was applied for metal recovery from fly ash and air pollution control residues from a municipal solid waste incineration plant. Subsequently, the feasibility of recycling both untreated and treated samples in cementitious materials was evaluated. This study aims to investigate the influences of chemical leaching on the structures and properties of MSWI residues as well as examine the utilization potential in cementitious materials of mineral residues after leaching, and their environmental risk. The use of acidic and alkaline leachants had good efficiency in critical metal recovery and unvalued/hazardous metal removal: 99 % of As, 72–80 % of Cd, 47–60 % of Zn, Cu, Co or Mn. After leaching, the chemical composition, physical properties, and mineralogical phases of the incinerated residues were substantially modified. The postleaching mineral residues showed potential for use in supplementary cementitious materials with enhanced reactivity and control of hydration kinetics. The compressive strength of cement pastes using 20 % of MSWI residues can obtain 14 MPa after 7 days. Detrimental impacts from potential toxic elements in incinerated residues can be alleviated through chemical leaching.