Recommended Nutrient Intake Research Articles

Dietary Essential Amino Acid Intake Is Associated with High Muscle Strength in Korean Older Adults.

The relationship between daily dietary intake of an individual or all essential amino acids (EAAs) and muscle strength in older adults is still inadequately characterized. This population-based cross-sectional study included 5971 participants aged ≥65 years from the 2014–2019 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Dietary information was derived from the 24 h recall data. Total essential amino acid score (EAAS) was calculated with an intake that satisfied the recommended nutrient intake (RNI) in each essential amino acid (EAA). The mean handgrip strength was estimated from triplicate measurements obtained using the dominant hand, and high muscle strength was defined as handgrip strength ≥28 kg for men and ≥18 kg for women. Multivariable-adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated using logistic regression models. After multivariable adjustment, we found that a high total EAAS was associated with high muscle strength in Korean older adults (OR: 1.38, 95% CI: 1.07–1.79). High muscle strength was significantly enhanced with increased total EAA intake from animal sources (OR: 1.27, 95% CI: 1.02–1.58), but there was no significant association with total EAA intake from non-animal sources. EAA intake and high muscle strength are associated based on a positive dose-response relationship in which high muscle strength is further increased when the overall EAA intake meets the RNI. Thus, Korean older adults should ensure an adequate intake of all EAAs from various food sources (especially animal sources) to meet the RNI as a prerequisite for achieving high muscle strength.

Evaluation of nutrient elements contents of China’s main deciduous fruits and dietary exposure assessment

The mineral element characteristics of China’s 4 main deciduous fruits (apple, pear, grape, and peach) were studied to provide a scientific basis for fruit nutrition evaluation and fruit consumption. The element composition and their contribution towards recommended nutrient intake (RNI) and tolerable upper intake level (UL) among different populations were determined. The average contents of the 10 mineral elements followed the order K > P > Mg > Ca > Na > Fe > B > Cu > Zn > Mn. The 10 elements were significantly different among the four fruits (p < 0.05). Among the 10 elements, the highest contribution from four fruits to RNI was related to Cu (85.3%), of which apples and pears contributed 33.1% and 33.2%, respectively. The risk index (RI) of Cu from four fruits for all age groups ranged from 2.92% to 49.5% and the RI values of Ca, Fe, Mn, Zn were less than 16.0%, indicating that nutrient element exposure by four fruits intake was usually considered safe if consumed in reasonable amounts. The overall correct classification rate of four fruits by LDA was more than 85% which demonstrated that different kinds of fruits can be distinguished by mineral element contents.

Relationship between Anemia and Falls among Postmenopausal Women in Korea.

This study was conducted to explore the relationship between anemia and falls in postmenopausal women. The relationships between energy, protein, iron, and vitamin C intake were also checked. The data of this study are a combination of data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) collected from the KNHANES VI-2,3 (2014–2015) and VII-1,2,3 (2016–2018). Falls and anemia were compared according to the subjects’ characteristics. Phi and Cramer’s V coefficient were applied to find the strength of association. Energy, protein, iron, and vitamin C intake and anemia were investigated. The relationship between the status as anemic and the occurrence of falls was analyzed using binary logistic regression. Of the 6665 subjects, 274 had a fall, and 596 had anemia. If the energy intake did not meet the estimated energy requirements, the state of anemia was significantly higher with a weak association. When protein, iron, and vitamin C did not meet the recommended nutrient intake, the anemia state was considerably higher with a weak to moderate association. Postmenopausal women with anemia were more likely to fall than subjects without anemia (OR = 1.88, p = 0.003). Additionally, anemia was confirmed to be related to insufficient energy, protein, iron, and vitamin C intake.

Evaluation of nutritional quality of complementary foods formulated from blends of Nigerian yellow maize (Zea mays), soybean (Glycine max) and crayfish (Procambarus clarkii).

Plant-based complementary foods (CFs) supply insufficient amount of nutrients to meet recommended nutrient intakes for 6-23-month-old children. The present study determined the nutritional quality of CFs formulated from blends of Nigerian yellow maize (Zea mays), soybean (Glycine max) and crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). Three CFs were formulated; namely, maize flour (MF, 100:0% w/w), blends of maize and soybean flour (MSF, 72:28% w/w), and maize, soybean and crayfish flour (MSCF, 80:10:10% w/w). Nutritional quality was evaluated using analyses of chemical composition of CFs and of protein quality of complementary food diets. Data were compared by multivariate analysis of variance and significantly differentiated. Nine selected nutritional criteria were used to decide the CF that had best nutritional characteristics compared to MF and fortified wheat flour (FWMF). Total scores obtained from the selected nutritional criteria ranked MSCF, with total score of 15, as the lowest and thus it was considered to have the most desirable nutritional characteristics compared to MF, MSF and FWMF, which had respective total scores of 31, 22 and 20. Conclusively, MSCF may serve as a better alternative CF for MF, MSC and FWMF. The present study has produced a potential alternative cost-effective and adequate CF, formulated from crayfish (P.clarkii) supplementation of locally available blend of yellow maize (Z.mays) and soybean (G.max), for the poor human population, aiming to encourage the consumption of animal-sourced CF for alleviating the prevalence of childhood undernutrition. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Nutritional assessment of plant-based meat analogues on the Swedish market

Nutritional quality of 142 plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs) on the Swedish market were assessed by nutritional contribution (NC) to recommended nutrient intake, three labelling systems (Keyhole, Nutri-Score, nutrition claims) and comparisons to meat references. Based on median (min-max) NC for macronutrients, PBMAs in general appeared as healthy options to meat due to higher NC per 100 g for fibre [PBMAs: 15% (1-33%) vs meat: 0% (0-2%)] and lower NC for saturated fat [PBMAs: 4% (0-59%) vs meat: 15% (1-51%)]. The NC per 100 g for salt was substantial for both PBMAs [25% (5-52%)] and meat [24% (2-55%)]. Limited data for micronutrients indicated that PBMAs are higher in iron compared to meat. Nutrition quality varied both between and within product categories. Mince, bite/fillet and nugget analogues were the main healthier categories, according to labelling systems. Bioavailability of iron, protein quality and effects of processing are important future aspects to consider.

Nutritional properties of wild and fattening mud crab (Scylla serrata) in the south-eastern district of Bangladesh

Mud crab (Scylla serrata) is one of the most important crustacean species in Bangladesh due to its high economic value. Crab fattening is widely practiced in the country to meet export demand while the supply for domestic consumption is mainly dependent on wild sources. This work reported for the first time a comparative evaluation of the nutritional properties of wild and fattening mud crabs. For this purpose, the proximate compositions were determined in terms of total contents of protein, moisture, ash, lipid, and minerals. Female fattening mud crabs had the highest levels of protein (17.07 ± 1.52%) and moisture (76.95 ± 1.39%) content, while the highest percentages of ash (4.9 ± 1.03%) were detected in male fattening mud crabs. Male fattening mud crabs also contained high amounts of minerals, especially calcium (1199.71 ± 343.43 mg/100g) and iron (14.21 ± 1.28 mg/100g). Male and female wild crabs showed the highest levels of magnesium and phosphorus, respectively. Additionally, the calculated percentage of recommended nutrient intake (RNI) value revealed that mud crab contributes 4.4–59.99%, 6.6–53.98%, and 7.33–54.53% for infants, adults, pregnant and lactating women, respectively. The present study indicates that mud crab had a balanced nutritional composition that would be nutrient-rich excellent diet for consumers.

A 3‐D approach to personalised nutrition

A <scp>3‐D</scp> approach to personalised nutrition

Energy and Nutrient Intake Status Among Indonesia Children Aged 1–5 Years With Different Dairy Food Consumption Patterns

ObjectivesDairy foods are an important food source of energy and nutrients for young children. We hypothesized that the intakes of energy and nutrients would be different in children aged 1–5 years who consumed different types of dairy foods in Indonesia.MethodsIn the current study, we analyzed dietary intake data of Indonesian children aged 1–5 years (n = 11,020) in the Survei Diet Total (SDT) survey conducted in 2014. First, energy and nutrient intakes of each child were estimated based on 1 day 24-hour dietary recall using Nutri-Survey software. Then we compared the energy and nutrient intakes of children who consumed different types of dairy foods. SDT 2014 classification approach of energy and protein intake status, and WHO estimated average requirements (EAR) were applied to defined inadequate intakes in this study.ResultsWe found that 57.3% of Indonesian children aged 1–5 years consumed dairy foods, with the highest percentages of consumption in 36–47m (82.6%) and the lowest in 48–60m (44.4%) children. The top 3 commonly consumed dairy foods were young children milk (YCM, 37.0%), condensed milk (12.3%) and cow's milk (6.9%). We then analyzed the nutrient intakes of all children, non-dairy consumers, YCM consumers, cow's milk consumers and condensed milk consumers separately. Over 50% of the children were inadequate in energy intake in this population, especially among non-dairy food consumers. In general, the micronutrient intake status was challenging, over 50% children had inadequate intakes of iron, calcium, zinc, vitamins A, D and Bs. Compared to dairy consumers, non-dairy consumers had lower intakes of many micronutrients across age groups. Among children across the age range who consumed different types of dairy foods, the percentages of children with inadequate intakes of iron, zinc, vitamins A, C and D were the lowest in YCM consumers.ConclusionsIn this study we found that children who consumed dairy foods, especially YCM, had lower proportion of children below nutrient intake recommendations compared to non-dairy consumers. Nutrition education and promotion of nutrient rich foods consumption, such as dairy, could improve the nutrient adequacy in Indonesian children aged 1–5 years.Funding SourcesThis study is funded by Société des Produits Nestlé SA.

Development and nutritional index of ready to use fish products (RUFPs) from small fish species: Future superfoods for consumers

The study was designed to develop and evaluate the proximate composition, minerals, amino acids, and fatty acids of ready-to-use fish products (RUFPs)/fish powders from three small freshwater fish species, namely chapila (Gudusia chapra), kachki (Corica soborna), and tit punti (Puntius ticto). In addition, the percentage of recommended nutrient intake (RNI) was investigated for adults, infants, and pregnant and lactating women (PLW). Each small fish species except kachki was divided into three groups, namely whole, gutted, and muscle, for powder preparation and nutritional analysis. The whole fish produced the most powder (11.25–13.65%) followed by gutted fish (7.76–10.15%) and muscle (5.35–7.04%). The highest protein concentration (%) was in the RUFPs developed from muscle (62.15–69.61) followed by gutted (55.63–65.28) and whole fish (48.81–53.6). The macro-minerals were detected in the following order: Ca>P>K>Na>Mg, and all ultra-trace mineral values were below the established tolerable limits. The whole fish powders had the most total essential amino acids (1.19–4.6 µg/mg) and EPA + DHA (302.24–684.27 mg/100 g). Furthermore, RUFPs would contribute > 30% of RNI for consumers, especially calcium and selenium. Therefore, fish powder could represent a potential nutrient-rich supplement for vulnerable populations to combat hidden hunger.

Folate content of a staple food increased by fermentation of a cereal using selected folate-producing microorganisms

Folate deficiencies are widespread in Africa due to predominantly cereal-based diets. The objective of this work was to test the feasibility of using folate-producing microorganisms to increase folate content of tef injera, a traditional Ethiopian fermented staple food. To this end, a strain of Lactobacillus plantarum previously isolated from fermented tef batter and a commercial Saccharomyces cerevisiae were used alone and in combination to prepare injera. Ten successive fermentations using backslopping from the fermented batter prepared with L. plantarum inoculation were performed to mimic the traditional backslopping. The highest folate content was obtained with S. cerevisiae (53.5 μg/100 ​g fresh material). All the combinations were efficient and could cover up to 22 % of the recommended nutrient intakes. All injera prepared with selected inoculums were preferred by sensory panelists to the traditional one. This work demonstrates the possibility to increase folate intake using folate-producing microorganisms in the conditions normally encountered in households.

School feeding contributed valuable dietary energy and nutrients despite suboptimal supply to school-age children and adolescents at primary schools in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

ObjectivesThis study investigated the nutritional quality and adequacy of school meals served to school-age children and adolescents. MethodsA total of 55 food samples were collected from 11 food types served for breakfast and lunch at 15 selected school kitchens. Each meal was weighed using a digital scale. The initial sample weights were recorded and dried in an oven at a temperature of 60°C to constant weight. The nutrient content and dietary energy of the meals were calculated using a conversion factor with reference to the national food composition table. ResultsSchool meals supplied 883 calories of average energy, representing 48% and 34% of the daily recommended nutrient intake (RNI) for early adolescents (ages 7–12 y) or late adolescents (ages 13–17 y), respectively. Late-adolescent boys acquired the least RNI (31%). The meals contributed protein (44%–66%; 31%–47%), carbohydrate (50%–68%; 35%–48%), fat (15%–26%; 10%–20%), and fiber (44%–110%; 31%–78%) for early and late adolescents, respectively. Micronutrients, such as β-carotene (36%–51%; 26%–37%), thiamine (47%–78%; 33%–54%), riboflavin (35%–55%; 26%–38%), niacin (16%–27%; 12%–19%), phosphorous (27%–41%; 20%–29%), calcium (64%–103%; 46%–73%), and iron (188%; 133%) were served for early and late adolescents, respectively. The caloric and nutritional contributions were generally less than two-thirds of the daily RNIs required from school meals, except that of fiber, thiamine, and calcium (for early adolescents), and iron. ConclusionsDespite their benefit to alleviate hunger in schools, school meals contributed suboptimal energy and nutrients to deprived school-age children and adolescents. Inclusion of animal products, fruits, and vegetables may improve energy and nutritional values.

Health effects of yogurt consumption during paediatric age: a narrative review

Yogurt is a fermented milk product characterised by a peculiar nutritional composition with live and viable cultures of bacteria. Few studies have analysed the benefits of yogurt consumption on health outcomes during paediatric age. Recent epidemiological studies evaluating the nutritional impact of yogurt have demonstrated its significant contribution to nutrients intakes among children. Thus, consuming yogurt is a strategy to achieve recommended nutrient intake and healthier dietary choices, with potential impact on obesity and cardiometabolic outcome in children. Yogurt’s effects on paediatric infectious diseases, gastrointestinal diseases and atopic-related disorders are ascribed to the specific probiotic strain administered. Interestingly, the benefits of yogurt consumption are most likely due to effects mediated through the gut microbiota and the enhancement of innate and adaptive immune responses. Therefore, supplementing standard yogurt cultures with probiotic strains could be useful to promote health at different paediatric ages, although more evidence is needed regarding the strain-related effects and their interplay within the paediatric immune system.

Implications of food and nutrition security on household food expenditure: the case of Malaysia

IntroductionFood security is attracting more attention in Malaysia not only at the national level that concern toward the enhancement of food self-sufficiency but also at the individual level which concerns more on nutrition and health. The economic recession triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic has brought the food and nutrition security challenge to the higher priority. In this study, we assessed the feasibility of encouraging a healthy eating plan by taking into account two important elements, food cost and nutrient intake, to help tackle the food and nutrition insecurity challenges at the individual level.Method and materialsThis study used a goal programming model with dietary intake data from Malaysian Adult Nutrition Survey reports to develop food plans that can improve nutrition quality without increasing food cost. Missing data, such as nutrient compositions and food prices, were collected separately from existing governmental and non-governmental sources. Benchmark nutrient intakes were derived from Malaysian Dietary Guidelines and Malaysian Recommended Nutrient Intakes reports, whereas benchmark costs were estimated by mapping food prices to dietary intake. The cost of healthier diets was also assessed to examine the acceptability of dietary changes for the low-income population.ResultsThe results showed that healthier diets following national dietary guidelines are achievable with reasonable food choices shift without changing the cost of meal plan. Greater intake of milk and vegetables (for more calcium) and smaller intake of seafood and egg products (for less protein) will contribute to raise diet quality and achieve more adequate nutrition. However, the cost attached to healthier food plan is still likely to be burdensome for the food-insecure and low-income population.ConclusionsOur results suggest that policymakers should implement income-relevant laws to cut poverty and improve the population’s dietary intake. Income growth as a result of better skills and education is needed to ensure that the real incomes of Malaysian are well sustained, and increased to help low-income population make better and healthier food choices.

Nutrient and contaminant exposure from smoked European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus): Implications for children's health in Ghana

Inadequate nutrient intakes are frequent among young children in low- and middle-income countries, causing prevalent micronutrient deficiencies. In Ghana, small smoked fish are the most frequently consumed animal source foods, and both whole fish and different tissues of fish are commonly used in complementary foods. However, the risks and benefits associated with consumption of different tissues of smoked fish has not been explored. Samples of smoked European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) were collected from five regions in Ghana and divided into subsamples of different tissues: whole fish, heads and skin, and samples without heads and skin. The different tissues were subsequently analyzed for selected nutrients (vitamins, minerals, trace elements and fatty acids), heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. A scenario referencing young children in Ghana (aged 6-23 months) was developed to assess the risks and benefits associated with daily consumption of different tissues of smoked European anchovy. We found that all tissues had the potential to substantially contribute to the recommended nutrient intakes of vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids important for young child development. Samples of whole fish and of heads and skin contained levels of cadmium which exceeded the tolerable weekly intake greatly in the current scenario. All tissues contained elevated concentrations of BaP and PAH4 which exceeded the margin of exposure in the scenario, entailing potential consumer risk. A thorough assessment of dietary intakes of smoked fish products and refined risk-benefit assessments are therefore imperative to secure safe utilization of smoked fish in Ghana. • Different tissues of smoked European anchovy contain key nutrients for young children. • Whole fish or heads and skin combined exceeded the tolerable weekly intake for Cd. • All tissues contained elevated concentrations of PAHs, entailing potential consumer risk. • Refined risk-benefit assessments of smoked fish in Ghana are needed for safe utilization.

Priority Micronutrient Density in Foods.

BackgroundDespite concerted efforts to improve diet quality and reduce malnutrition, micronutrient deficiencies remain widespread globally, especially in low- and middle-income countries and among population groups with increased needs, where diets are often inadequate in iron, zinc, folate, vitamin A, calcium, and vitamin B12. There is a need to understand the density of these micronutrients and their bioavailability across diverse foods and the suitability of these foods to help meet requirements for populations with high burdens of micronutrient malnutrition.ObjectiveWe aimed to identify the top food sources of these commonly lacking micronutrients, which are essential for optimal health, to support efforts to reduce micronutrient malnutrition among various populations globally.MethodsWe built an aggregated global food composition database and calculated recommended nutrient intakes for five population groups with varying requirements. An approach was developed to rate foods according to their density in each and all priority micronutrients for various population groups with different nutrient requirements.ResultsWe find that the top sources of priority micronutrients are organs, small fish, dark green leafy vegetables, bivalves, crustaceans, goat, beef, eggs, milk, canned fish with bones, mutton, and lamb. Cheese, goat milk, and pork are also good sources, and to a lesser extent, yogurt, fresh fish, pulses, teff, and canned fish without bones.ConclusionThe results provide insight into which foods to prioritize to fill common micronutrient gaps and reduce undernutrition.

Factor analysis and cluster analysis of mineral elements contents in different blueberry cultivars

The mineral element characteristics of different blueberry cultivars were studied to provide a scientific basis for blueberry nutrition evaluation, blueberry consumption and parent selection. In the study, the contents of 10 elements in 21 blueberry cultivars were determined by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP–AES) and were analyzed by SPSS 20.0. The average contents of the 10 mineral elements followed the order K > P > Ca > Mg > Mn = Na > Fe > Zn > Cu > B. Blueberries can contribute significantly to the recommended nutrient intake (RNI) of Mn. The 21 blueberry cultivars were divided into 5 groups by cluster analysis: (1) high K and low Ca and Mn cultivars, (2) high B, P, Ca, Mg, Mn, and K cultivars, (3) high Cu and low Na cultivars, (4) high Zn, Na, and Fe cultivars, and (5) high B and low K cultivars. ‘Herbert’, ‘Jersey’, ‘Lateblue’, ‘Northblue’, ‘D–II’, ‘Puru’, and ‘Bluecrop’ were included in cluster (2) and (4), which had high comprehensive scores of factor analysis and strong absorption capacities of mineral elements.

Modelling the contribution of iodised salt in industrially processed foods to iodine intake in Macedonia.

Evidence from the 1950s showed that Macedonia was iodine deficient. After the introduction of mandatory universal salt iodisation, the country saw a steady increase in iodine intake and decline in goitre prevalence, earning iodine-deficiency free status in 2003. Iodine status assessments in 2007 and 2016 showed adequate iodine intake among school age children (median urinary iodine concentration of 241 μg/L and 236 μg/L respectively). Macedonia participated in piloting the Iodine Global Network Programme Guidance on the use of iodised salt in industrially processed foods to better understand potential iodised salt intake from processed foods. One objective of implementation was to identify the need, opportunities, and required actions to strengthen the processed food component of the national salt iodisation policy. Data from the 2017 Household Consumption and Expenditure Survey (HCES) was used to determine household salt consumption, to identify widely-consumed, salt-containing industrially processed foods, and estimate typical daily intake of these foods. Their estimated contribution to iodine intake was estimated based on their salt content and the percentage of food industry salt that is iodised. Although the study has limitations, including a relatively small selection of foods, the results indicate potential iodine intake from iodised household salt and iodised salt in the selected foods of nearly 300% of the Estimated Average Requirement and over 220% of the Recommended Nutrient Intake for adults. This was approximately 50% of the tolerable safe Upper Level for iodine intake. The study confirmed high daily salt intake (11.2 grams from household salt only). Successful salt reduction would be expected to reduce iodine intake, however, modelling with 10% and 30% reduction implied this is unlikely to put any population group at risk of deficiency. It is recommended that implementation of salt iodisation and salt reduction policies are harmonized, alongside continued regular iodine status monitoring for different population groups.

Estimation of Intake of Critical Nutrients Associated with Noncommunicable Diseases According to the PAHO/WHO Criteria in the Diet of School-Age Children in Montevideo, Uruguay.

Purpose: To estimate the effect of the consumption of products with an excessive amount of critical nutrients associated with NCDs, according to the PAHO Nutrient Profile Model on the quality of the diet of Uruguayan school-age children (4 to 12 years). Methods: A 24 h recall of food intake was conducted in a representative sample of 332 participants in the evaluation of the School Feeding Program in 2018 in public schools in Montevideo, Uruguay. Food and preparations were categorized according to the NOVA food classification, according to the nature, extent, and purposes of the industrial processes they undergo. Later, they were analyzed according to the Pan American Health Organization Nutrient Profile Model (PAHO NPM) to identify processed and ultra-processed products with an excessive content of critical nutrients. Results: Only 0.52% of children consumed exclusively natural foods, or culinary ingredients. Twenty-five per cent of children consumed ≥4 products categorized with an excessive content of free sugars, total fat, or saturated fat according to the PAHO NPM; in the case of excessive sodium, this was 40%. In general, children who included products with excessive free sugars, sodium, or saturated fat in their diet exceeded the limits established by the World Health Organization, and, as a result, their diet is of poorer nutritional quality compared to children who did not consume such products. Conclusion: Diets free of ultra-processed and processed products with excess free sugars, total fats, saturated fats, and sodium increased the chances of school-age children in Montevideo of meeting WHO nutrient intake recommendations. Meanwhile, intake of each additional gram of products with excessive critical nutrients according to PAHO NPM, significantly worsens diets, preventing children from meeting WHO recommendations.

Food Access and Fast Food Consumption Behaviour among Health Sciences Students at Uitm Puncak Alam

Background: Fast foods are convenient to people who lives a busy lifestyle. Nevertheless, uncontrolled consumption of fast food can lead to obesity. About 84% of Malaysian students consume fast food and are often unable to meet recommended nutrient intake due to snacking habits and skipping meals. Objective: To identify food access and fast food consumption behaviour among Health Sciences students at UiTM Puncak Alam. Methods: This cross-sectional study was done among Health Sciences students at UiTM Puncak Alam. The questionnaire was adapted from ‘Fast Food Consumption and Obesity’. A total 267 from Year 2 and Year 3 was participated. The questionnaire consists of 27 questions including demographic data, food access and fast food consumption behaviour. Results: Majority of the students have problem in transportation for food access and consumed fast food many times per month. However, the study finding showed no relationship between transportation problem, fast food consumption behaviour and BMI. Conclusion: With the advance in technology food can be ordered online and can be delivered by the restaurant. Therefore, there was no relationship between transportation problem and fast food consumption behaviour. Future research should focus on effect of fast food consumption behaviour on students’ academic performance and health related quality of life.

Dietary Reference Intakes of sodium for Koreans: focusing on a new DRI component for chronic disease risk reduction.

Sodium is a physiologically essential nutrient, but excessive intake is linked to the increased risk of various chronic diseases, particularly cardiovascular. It is, therefore, necessary to accomplish an evidence-based approach and establish the Korean Dietary Reference Intakes (KDRIs) index, to identify both the nutritional adequacy and health effects of sodium. This review presents the rationale for and the process of revising the KDRIs for sodium and, more importantly, establishing the sodium Chronic Disease Risk Reduction Intake (CDRR) level, which is a new specific set of values for chronic disease risk reduction. To establish the 2020 KDRIs for dietary sodium, the committee conducted a systematic literature review of the intake–response relationships between the selected indicators for sodium levels and human chronic diseases. In this review, 43 studies published from January 2014 to December 2018, using databases of PubMed and Web of Science, were finally included for evaluating the risk of bias and strength of evidence (SoE). We determined that SoE of the relationship between dietary sodium and cardiovascular diseases, cerebrovascular disease, and hypertension, was moderate to strong. However, due to insufficient scientific evidence, we were unable to establish the estimated average requirement and the recommended nutrient intake for dietary sodium. Therefore, the adequate intake of sodium for adults was established to be 1,500 mg/day, whereas the CDRR for dietary sodium was established at 2,300 mg/day for adults. Intake goal for dietary sodium established in the 2015 KDRIs instead of the tolerable upper intake level was not presented in the 2020 KDRIs. For the next revision of the KDRIs, there is a requirement to pursue further studies on nutritional adequacy and toxicity of dietary sodium, and their associations with chronic disease endpoint in the Korean population.