Reciprocal Balance Research Articles

Strength and size relationships of the quadriceps and hamstrings with special reference to reciprocal muscle balance.

This study examined the association of muscle size and strength for the quadriceps and hamstrings, the relationship between the size of these muscles, and whether the H:Q size ratio influenced reciprocal strength balance-widely regarded as a risk factor for hamstrings injury. Knee extensor and flexor isometric, concentric and eccentric (50 and 350° s(-1)) strength were measured in 31 healthy, recreationally active young men. Muscle volume was measured with magnetic resonance imaging. The knee flexors achieved higher concentric and eccentric torques (normalised to isometric values) than the extensors. Muscle volume explained a significant part of the inter-individual differences in strength in both extensors (isometric 71%, concentric 30-31%) and flexors (isometric 38%, concentric 50-55%). Notably, muscle size was related to knee flexor eccentric strength (r = 0.69-0.76; R (2) = 48-58%) but not extensor eccentric strength. Quadriceps and hamstrings volumes were moderately correlated (r = 0.64), with the majority of the variance in the size of one muscle (59%) not explained by the size of the other muscle. The hamstrings-to-quadriceps (H:Q) volume ratio was correlated with the isometric (r = 0.45) and functional strength ratios (350° s(-1), r = 0.56; 50° s(-1), r = 0.34). Muscle size exhibited a differential influence on knee extensor and flexor eccentric strength. Quadriceps and hamstrings muscle size was related, and the H:Q size ratio contributed to their strength ratios. Muscle size imbalances contribute to functional imbalances and these findings support the use of hamstrings strength training with an emphasis on hypertrophic adaptations for reducing injury risk.

The Interleukin-2-mTORc1 Kinase Axis Defines the Signaling, Differentiation, and Metabolism of T Helper 1 and Follicular B Helper T Cells

The differentiation of CD4(+) helper T cell subsets with diverse effector functions is accompanied by changes in metabolism required to meet their bioenergetic demands. We find that follicular B helper T (Tfh) cells exhibited less proliferation, glycolysis, and mitochondrial respiration, accompanied by reduced mTOR kinase activity compared to T helper 1 (Th1) cells in response to acute viral infection. IL-2-mediated activation of the Akt kinase and mTORc1 signaling was both necessary and sufficient to shift differentiation away from Tfh cells, instead promoting that of Th1 cells. These findings were not the result of generalized signaling attenuation in Tfh cells, because they retained the ability to flux calcium and activate NFAT-transcription-factor-dependent cytokine production. These data identify the interleukin-2 (IL-2)-mTORc1 axis as a critical orchestrator of the reciprocal balance between Tfh and Th1 cell fates and their respective metabolic activities after acute viral infection.

Differential expression of living mammary epithelial cell subpopulations in milk during lactation in dairy cows

Epithelial cells are shed into milk during lactation, and although they generally reflect the cellular characteristics of terminally differentiated luminal cells, previously the detection of more primitive cells was described in human milk where a cell population of epithelial lineage was detected expressing markers typical of progenitor cells. In this investigation, we report the development of flow cytometry analysis to allow multiparametric assessment of mammary epithelial cells observed in milk. Cells collected from milk samples of 10 healthy dairy cows were directly analyzed for 6 different markers: CD45, CD49f, cytokeratin 14, cytokeratin 18, presence of nucleus, and cell viability. Milk samples were collected in 3 different periods of lactation: early lactation (EL=d 0–30), mid-lactation (ML=d 90–120), and late lactation (LL=210–250). Here we identify the differential expression of precursor or differentiated cell markers (or both) in mammary epithelial cells present in bovine milk. Myoepithelial cells, as indicated by cells staining positively for cytokeratin 14+/cytokeratin 18−, were observed to increase from EL to LL with a high correlation with nuclear staining inferring potential proliferative activity. Furthermore, a significant increase in CD49f+ and cytokeratin 14+/cytokeratin 18+ positive cells was observed in LL. This assay is a sensitive approach for evaluating the variations in the frequency and features of living epithelial cells, whose reciprocal balance may be significant in understanding mammary gland cellular function throughout lactation. These observations suggest that mammary epithelial cell immunophenotypes could be investigated as biomarkers for mammary gland function in dairy cows.

Social exchange in online social networks. The reciprocity phenomenon on Facebook

Social exchange theory proposes that social behavior is the result of an exchange process. The purpose of this exchange is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. Online social networks seem to be an ideal platform for social exchange because they provide an opportunity to keep social relations with a relatively low cost compared to offline relations. This theory was verified positively many times for offline social interactions, and we decided to examine whether this theory may be also applied to online social networks. Our research is focused on reciprocity, which is crucial for social exchanges because humans keep score, assign meaning to exchanges, and change their subsequent interactions based on a reciprocity balance. The online social network platform of our choice was Facebook, which is one of the most successful online social sites allowing users to interact with their friends and acquaintances. In our study we found strong empirical evidence that an increase in the number of reciprocity messages the actor broadcasts in online social networks increases the reciprocity reactions from his or her audience. This finding allowed for positive verification of the social exchange theory in online communities. Hence, it can be stated that our work contributes to theories of exchange patterns in online social networks.

Effects of gravitational acceleration on cardiovascular autonomic control in resting humans.

Previous studies of cardiovascular responses in hypergravity suggest increased sympathetic regulation. The analysis of spontaneous heart rate variability (HRV) parameters and spontaneous baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) informs on the reciprocal balance of parasympathetic and sympathetic regulations at rest. This paper was aimed at determining the effects of gravitational acceleration (a g) on HRV and BRS. Eleven healthy subjects (age 26.6 ± 6.1) were studied in a human centrifuge at four a g levels (1, 1.5, 2 and 2.5 g) during 5-min sessions at rest. We evaluated spontaneous variability of R-R interval (RR), and of systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SAP and DAP, respectively), by power spectral analysis, and BRS by the sequence method, using the BRSanalysis(®) software. At 2.5 g, compared to 1 g, (1) the total power (P TOT) and the powers of LF and HF components of HRV were lower, while the LF/HF ratio was higher; (2) normalized units for LF and HF did not changed significantly; (3) the P TOT, LF and HF powers of SAP were higher; (4) the P TOT and LF power of DAP were higher; and (5) BRS was decreased. These results do not agree with the notion of sympathetic up-regulation supported by the increase in HR and DAP (tonic indices), and of SAP and DAP LF powers (oscillatory indices). The P TOT reduction leads to speculate that only the sympathetic branch of the ANS might have been active during elevated a g exposure. The vascular response occurred in a condition of massive baroreceptive unloading.

Is schizophrenia a spatiotemporal disorder of the brain's resting state?

Is schizophrenia a spatiotemporal disorder of the brain's resting state?

Importance of reciprocal balance of T cell immunity in Mycobacterium abscessus complex lung disease.

BackgroundLittle is known about the nature of the host immune response to Mycobacterium abscessus complex (MABC) infection. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether alterations in serum immunomolecule levels after treating MABC lung disease patients with antibiotics can reflect the disease-associated characteristics.MethodsA total of 22 immunomolecules in 24 MABC lung disease patients before and after antibiotic therapy were quantitatively analyzed using a multiplex bead-based system.ResultsIn general, the pre-treatment levels of T helper type 1 (Th1)-related cytokines, i.e., interferon (IFN)-γ and interleukin (IL)-12, and Th2-related cytokines, i.e., IL-4 and IL-13, were significantly decreased in patients compared with control subjects. In contrast, the pre-treatment levels of Th17-related cytokines, i.e., IL-17 and IL-23, were significantly increased in MABC patients. Interestingly, significantly higher levels of IFN-γ-induced protein (IP)-10 and monokine induced by IFN-γprotein (MIG) were detected in patients with failure of sputum conversion at post-treatment compared to patients with successful sputum conversion.ConclusionReduced Th1 and Th2 responses and enhanced Th17 responses in patients may perpetuate MABC lung disease, and the immunomolecules IP-10 and MIG, induced through IFN-γ, may serve as key markers for indicating the treatment outcome.

Changes in serum immunomolecules during antibiotic therapy forMycobacterium aviumcomplex lung disease

Little information is available regarding changes in immune status for patients with Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) lung disease during antibiotic therapy. Serum immunomolecules from 42 patients with MAC lung disease were assayed comparatively using an array-based system according to (i) patients with MAC lung disease at the time of diagnosis versus healthy controls and (ii) alterations after 12 months of antibiotic therapy in the MAC lung disease group. In addition, cytokine analyses were performed to determine whether cytokine responses were associated specifically with the disease phenotype, treatment outcome and aetiological agent. Notably, the serum concentrations of type 1 cytokine-associated molecules, such as CD40L, interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-8 and IL-23, were decreased significantly in patients at the time of diagnosis, suggesting that these molecules may serve as indicators of host susceptibility to MAC disease. Although the overall serum level of T helper type 1 (Th1)-related molecules, such as CD40L and IFN-γ, was restored after treatment, Th17-related cytokines, such as IL-17 and IL-23, were down-regulated significantly at 12 months post-treatment compared to pretreatment. Furthermore, these cytokine patterns differed among patient subgroups. Decreased serum concentrations of IL-17 and/or IL-23 were associated with failure of sputum conversion, the fibrocavitary disease phenotype and M. intracellulare lung disease. Thus, the reciprocal balance between Th1 and Th17 immunity during antibiotic therapy for MAC lung disease is critical for dictating the treatment response. In conclusion, a low level of Th1-related immunomolecules may perpetuate MAC lung disease, and the serum concentrations of Th17-related cytokines can reflect the treatment outcome, disease phenotype and aetiological agent.

Interferon γ and plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 regulate adhesion formation after partial hepatectomy

The pathophysiology of intra-abdominal adhesions has not been studied extensively. The aim of this study was to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying adhesion formation in a murine model and in patients undergoing hepatectomy. Partial hepatectomy was performed using bipolar forceps in mice. Wild-type mice, antibodies to CD4 and interferon (IFN) γ, IFN-γ, natural killer T (NKT) cells and plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI) 1 knockout (KO) mice were used. Recombinant hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) was tested for its ability to prevent adhesions. Liver specimens were obtained during surgery from patients undergoing hepatectomy. Adhesion formation was evaluated using a scoring system that ranged from 0 (no adhesions) to 5 (severe adhesions). Levels of IFN-γ and PAI-1 mRNA, and protein concentration of PAI-I were measured, and fluorescence immunostaining was performed. Adhesion formation depended on IFN-γ produced by NKT cells, and NKT KO mice developed few adhesions (mean(s.d.) 1·7(0·3) versus 4·6(0·4) in wild-type mice; P = 0·037). In wild-type mice, the level of PAI-1 mRNA increased after hepatectomy, followed by a decrease in the tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) mRNA level. Adhesion formation was inhibited completely in PAI-1 KO mice (0(0) versus 4·1(0·8) in wild-type mice; P = 0·002). HGF inhibited formation of abdominal adhesions after hepatectomy by reducing IFN-γ and PAI-1 levels, and increasing tPA levels compared with those in mice treated with phosphate-buffered saline (P < 0·001, P = 0·002 and P = 0·035 respectively). In human liver specimens, NKT cells accumulated in the liver after hepatectomy, and PAI-1 expression was increased 5·25-fold (P = 0·030). IFN-γ is a key molecule for abdominal adhesion formation after hepatectomy, acting via the reciprocal balance of PAI-1 and tPA. This molecular mechanism may also regulate adhesion formation in patients following hepatectomy. HGF inhibited formation of adhesions by regulating IFN-γ and PAI-1, suggesting that it may be an important target for prevention of adhesions after hepatectomy. SURGICAL RELEVANCE: Postoperative intra-abdominal adhesions can be asymptomatic or cause significant morbidity and mortality. Adhesion formation after hepatectomy has not been studied extensively. In the present study, the molecular mechanisms underlying intra-abdominal adhesions after hepatectomy were investigated in a murine model and in patients. Interferon (IFN) γ produced by natural killer T cells is a key molecule for adhesion formation after hepatectomy in mice, acting via the reciprocal balance between plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI) 1 and tissue plasminogen activator, the pivotal factors in fibrinolytic activity. This mechanism was also involved in the regulation of adhesions in human tissue samples. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) strongly inhibited adhesion formation by regulating IFN-γ and PAI-1. These results indicate that IFN-γ and PAI-1 are possible therapeutic targets, and HGF could prevent postoperative adhesion formation after hepatectomy.

Dopamine Neurons Control Striatal Cholinergic Neurons via Regionally Heterogeneous Dopamine and Glutamate Signaling

Midbrain dopamine neurons fire in bursts conveying salient information. Bursts are associated with pauses in tonic firing of striatal cholinergic interneurons. Although the reciprocal balance of dopamine and acetylcholine in the striatum is well known, how dopamine neurons control cholinergic neurons has not been elucidated. Here, we show that dopamine neurons make direct fast dopaminergic and glutamatergic connections with cholinergic interneurons, with regional heterogeneity. Dopamine neurons drive a burst-pause firing sequence in cholinergic interneurons in the medial shell of the nucleus accumbens, mixed actions in the accumbens core, and a pause in the dorsal striatum. This heterogeneity is due mainly to regional variation in dopamine-neuron glutamate cotransmission. A single dose of amphetamine attenuates dopamine neuron connections to cholinergic interneurons with dose-dependent regional specificity. Overall, the present data indicate that dopamine neurons control striatal circuit function via discrete, plastic connections with cholinergic interneurons.

Floating exchange rates, reciprocity and trade balance

The basis for reciprocal concessions in the process of multilateral trade liberalisation is firmly established for fixed exchange rate regimes. The move from fixed to flexible exchange rates suggests that commercial policy negotiations and indeed trade liberalisation itself can be divorced from balance of payments considerations. However, the full range of implications of floating rates for international trade and capital movements is still not fully understood. The paper discusses a number of significant issues that are likely to entangle the relationship between reciprocity in trade liberalisation and its consequences for trade balance in a regime of floating exchange

대학 엘리트 카나디언 선수들의 어깨·허리·무릎 관절의 등속성 근기능 평가 및 진단

The aim of this study is to evaluate university canadian paddlers` iso-kinetic muscle function and provide training advices. Eight university paddlers with a 8.5 years career participated in this study. Inbody 720, biodex system III, biodex stabilizer system and THP 2 are used to investigate body component, muscle function(peak torque, average power and work fatigue), agility and dynamic balance. Iso-kinetic muscle function around shoulder, thorax and knee are measured. And then bilateral and unilateral muscle imbalance are calculated at each joint. Results of this study are as follows; University canadian paddlers` BMI average is 24.90 and percent body fat is 12.23%. Reaction time average was 324 msec and balance score at each leg are below 2.0. A3, A4, A5, A6, A8 are needed to train shoulder muscle strength and power. A1, A2, A7, A8 are needed to strengthen shoulder muscle endurance. A2, A5, A8 are needed to train thorax muscle strength and power. A1, A8 are needed to strengthen thorax muscle endurance. Most of paddlers` reciprocal muscle balance ratio on thorax and knee are out of normal range. A2, A3, A4, A8 are needed to train abdominal strength and A3, A5, A6, A7, A8 are needed to train hamstring strength.

Skewed immunological balance between Th17 (CD4+IL17A+) and Treg (CD4+CD25+FOXP3+) cells in human oral squamous cell carcinoma

Several studies have documented modulation of Th17 and T regulatory (Treg) cells in various human malignancies which may vary with the type and extent of the disease. However, such data in patients with oral cancer is scarce and hence the current study was designed to elaborate the immunological balance between these two T cell subsets in oral cancer. We analyzed various T cell subsets in the peripheral blood of 45 oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) patients and 40 healthy volunteers. We found that, compared with the healthy controls, patients had a significantly (p < 0.0001) higher proportion of both Th17 (CD4(+)IL17A(+)) and Treg (CD4(+)CD25(+)FOXP3(+)) cells, which further showed a reciprocal balance in relation to clinico-pathological parameters in patients. We also detected a circulating CD8(+) subset of these cells in both patients and healthy controls, although the difference between the two groups was statistically insignificant. Higher frequencies of Th17 cells were found in patients with early stages and without lymph node involvement, while an increased prevalence of Tregs was associated with higher clinical stages and lymph node involvement. Moreover, Th17 cells were quantitatively and positively correlated to CD4(+)T and CD8(+)T cells and inversely correlated with Tregs. Contrarily, Tregs showed a negative association with CD4(+)T and CD8(+)T cells. Our results suggest an increase in Th17/Tregs ratio in early stages and a decrease in this ratio in higher stages of oral cancer. Such counter regulation of Th17 and Tregs may be a significant prognostic factor in oral cancer patients.

Rejection and regulation

Achieving allograft tolerance is the holy grail of transplantation. However, tolerance and rejection are two extreme ends of a scale that can be tipped in either direction. We review the novel effector and regulatory mechanisms involved and factors that tip the balance in favor of rejection or regulation. It is increasingly recognized that established T-cell phenotypes could change their commitments. New data point to the plasticity of Th17 cells in vivo with a reciprocal balance of Th17 cells and regulatory T cells (Tregs) driven by the local cytokine environment. Treg-cell profiles have been linked to acute and chronic allograft outcomes, and emerging data also indicate a novel role of a regulatory B-cell population. Current research efforts are looking into factors that tip the balance toward allograft tolerance by targeting cytokines, novel costimulatory pathways such as T-cell immunoglobulin mucin molecules, and components of innate immunity, particularly dendritic cells. The balance of effector and regulatory mechanisms contributing to allograft outcome is very complex. It is likely that targeting multiple pathways will be required to achieve tolerance. Further studies are warranted to define this balance and identify optimal combination of therapeutic interventions.

In osteoporosis, differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) improves bone marrow adipogenesis.

The formation, maintenance, and repair of bone tissue involve close interlinks between two stem cell types housed in the bone marrow: the hematologic stem cell originating osteoclasts and mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) generating osteoblasts. In this review, we consider malfunctioning of MSCs as essential for osteoporosis. In osteoporosis, increased bone fragility and susceptibility to fractures result from increased osteoclastogenesis and insufficient osteoblastogenesis. MSCs are the common precursors for both osteoblasts and adipocytes, among other cell types. MSCs' commitment towards either the osteoblast or adipocyte lineages depends on suitable regulatory factors activating lineage-specific transcriptional regulators. In osteoporosis, the reciprocal balance between the two differentiation pathways is altered, facilitating adipose accretion in bone marrow at the expense of osteoblast formation; suggesting that under this condition MSCs activity and their microenvironment may be disturbed. We summarize research on the properties of MSCs isolated from the bone marrow of control and osteoporotic post-menopausal women. Our observations indicate that intrinsic properties of MSCs are disturbed in osteoporosis. Moreover, we found that the regulatory conditions in the bone marrow fluid of control and osteoporotic patients are significantly different. These conclusions should be relevant for the use of MSCs in therapeutic applications.

Magnetoelectric point scattering theory for metamaterial scatterers

We present a new, fully analytical point scattering model which can be applied to arbitrary anisotropic magneto-electric dipole scatterers, including split ring resonators (SRRs), chiral and anisotropic plasmonic scatterers. We have taken proper account of reciprocity and radiation damping for electric and magnetic scatterers with any general polarizability tensor. Specifically, we show how reciprocity and energy balance puts constraints on the electrodynamic responses arbitrary scatterers can have to light. Our theory sheds new light on the magnitude of cross sections for scattering and extinction, and for instance on the emergence of structural chirality in the optical response of geometrically non-chiral scatterers like SRRs. We apply the model to SRRs and discuss how to extract individual components of the polarizability matrix and extinction cross sections. Finally, we show that our model describes well the extinction of stereo-dimers of split rings, while providing new insights in the underlying coupling mechanisms.

CD161 Expression on Peripheral Blood CD4+CD39+ T Cell Populations is Associated With Immune Deviation in IBD and TH17 Expansion

Background The balance between T regulatory cells (Treg) and T helper type 17 (Th17) cells appears important in modulating immune responses in inflammatory bowel disease. CD39 is an immune cell ectonucleotidase, expressed in lipid rafts, which generates immune suppressive adenosine. Genetic polymorphisms of CD39 are noted in IBD and the ectoenzyme has been validated as a marker of memory type Treg. CD161 (killer cell lectin subfamily B, member 1 or NKR-P1A) is a relatively specific surface marker for human Th17 cells and is linked to activation of acid sphingomyelinase that might in turn impact CD39 bioactivity. It is unknown whether there are T cell populations in IBD that express both markers and the putative relevance is unexplored. Aims: To identify dual expression of CD39 and CD161 in blood T cells from patients with IBD, and explore the role of CD161 in regulating immune deviation of CD4+CD39+ T cell populations. Methods The percentage of CD39+CD161+ CD4 T cells in peripheral blood of patients with active or inactive Crohn's disease was determined by FACS. Four phenotypic subtypes of peripheral blood CD4 T cells including CD39+CD161+, CD39+CD161-, CD39-CD161+, and CD39-CD161from healthy donors were sorted by FACS, and stimulated respectively by anti-CD3/CD28 antibodies with with TGF-beta and IL-2 (for Treg cell expansion) or IL-6, IL-23, IL-1beta and TGFbeta (for Th17 cell expansion) for 3 days, and intracellular IL-17 and INF-gamma or FOXP3 were detected by FACS. These four subgroups were treated by ATP or NAD+ for 1 hour, and stained by Annexin V to detect early events of P2X7-mediated apoptosis. Result The percentage of CD39+CD161+ CD4 T cells in peripheral blood of normal controls, active and inactive Crohn's disease patients was 1.26±0.73, 4.55±2.39 and 0.95±0.52%, respectively (p=0.01, for active disease vs. both controls and inactive Crohn's disease). After 3 days, Treg expansion, of FOXP3-positive cells within the CD39+CD161+ group, was less than from the CD39+CD161group (p=0.01). After 3 days In Vitro expansion, the percentages of intracellular IL-17-positive and/or IFN-gamma-positive cells in CD4+CD39+CD161+ populations were higher than other three groups (p=0.01). However, CD39+CD161+ CD4 T cells also exhibited highest levels of NAD+-induced apoptosis (p=0.05 vs. other groups). Conclusions Peripheral blood CD4+CD39+CD161+ T cells are increased in active Crohn's disease. CD161 expression impacts the reciprocal balance of Treg and Th17 cells generated from CD4+CD39+ cells.

The Nuclear Protein HMGB1 is Increased in the Stools of IBD Patients and Appears to Be a Novel Marker of Intestinal Inflammation

Background The balance between T regulatory cells (Treg) and T helper type 17 (Th17) cells appears important in modulating immune responses in inflammatory bowel disease. CD39 is an immune cell ectonucleotidase, expressed in lipid rafts, which generates immune suppressive adenosine. Genetic polymorphisms of CD39 are noted in IBD and the ectoenzyme has been validated as a marker of memory type Treg. CD161 (killer cell lectin subfamily B, member 1 or NKR-P1A) is a relatively specific surface marker for human Th17 cells and is linked to activation of acid sphingomyelinase that might in turn impact CD39 bioactivity. It is unknown whether there are T cell populations in IBD that express both markers and the putative relevance is unexplored. Aims: To identify dual expression of CD39 and CD161 in blood T cells from patients with IBD, and explore the role of CD161 in regulating immune deviation of CD4+CD39+ T cell populations. Methods The percentage of CD39+CD161+ CD4 T cells in peripheral blood of patients with active or inactive Crohn's disease was determined by FACS. Four phenotypic subtypes of peripheral blood CD4 T cells including CD39+CD161+, CD39+CD161-, CD39-CD161+, and CD39-CD161from healthy donors were sorted by FACS, and stimulated respectively by anti-CD3/CD28 antibodies with with TGF-beta and IL-2 (for Treg cell expansion) or IL-6, IL-23, IL-1beta and TGFbeta (for Th17 cell expansion) for 3 days, and intracellular IL-17 and INF-gamma or FOXP3 were detected by FACS. These four subgroups were treated by ATP or NAD+ for 1 hour, and stained by Annexin V to detect early events of P2X7-mediated apoptosis. Result The percentage of CD39+CD161+ CD4 T cells in peripheral blood of normal controls, active and inactive Crohn's disease patients was 1.26±0.73, 4.55±2.39 and 0.95±0.52%, respectively (p=0.01, for active disease vs. both controls and inactive Crohn's disease). After 3 days, Treg expansion, of FOXP3-positive cells within the CD39+CD161+ group, was less than from the CD39+CD161group (p=0.01). After 3 days In Vitro expansion, the percentages of intracellular IL-17-positive and/or IFN-gamma-positive cells in CD4+CD39+CD161+ populations were higher than other three groups (p=0.01). However, CD39+CD161+ CD4 T cells also exhibited highest levels of NAD+-induced apoptosis (p=0.05 vs. other groups). Conclusions Peripheral blood CD4+CD39+CD161+ T cells are increased in active Crohn's disease. CD161 expression impacts the reciprocal balance of Treg and Th17 cells generated from CD4+CD39+ cells.

Interleukins, from 1 to 37, and interferon-γ: Receptors, functions, and roles in diseases

Advancing our understanding of mechanisms of immune regulation in allergy, asthma, autoimmune diseases, tumor development, organ transplantation, and chronic infections could lead to effective and targeted therapies. Subsets of immune and inflammatory cells interact via ILs and IFNs; reciprocal regulation and counter balance among T(h) and regulatory T cells, as well as subsets of B cells, offer opportunities for immune interventions. Here, we review current knowledge about ILs 1 to 37 and IFN-γ. Our understanding of the effects of ILs has greatly increased since the discoveries of monocyte IL (called IL-1) and lymphocyte IL (called IL-2); more than 40 cytokines are now designated as ILs. Studies of transgenic or knockout mice with altered expression of these cytokines or their receptors and analyses of mutations and polymorphisms in human genes that encode these products have provided important information about IL and IFN functions. We discuss their signaling pathways, cellular sources, targets, roles in immune regulation and cellular networks, roles in allergy and asthma, and roles in defense against infections.

Cross‐sectional investigation of indices of isokinetic leg strength in youth soccer players and untrained individuals

In this cross-sectional study, the differences in the isokinetic peak torque of the knee joint muscles (dominant and non-dominant) were investigated in three groups of youths (n=45; age, 14.9+/-1.1 years) with different soccer training backgrounds. Significant main effects were observed for training background on the functional hamstrings to quadriceps ratios for knee flexion (H(CON):Q(ECC) ratio; F(2,42)=4.023, P=0.025) and extension (H(ECC):Q(CON) ratio; F(2,42)=8.53, P<0.001) at 4.32 rad/s. Post hoc tests indicated that both ratios were significantly different between conventionally trained players compared with resistance-trained players and controls (mean+/-SD; H(ECC):Q(CON) ratio, dominant limb; 0.91+/-0.10; 1.04+/-0.12; 1.10+/-0.22; non-dominant limb; 0.89+/-0.09; 1.05+/-0.19; 1.06+/-0.15; H(CON):Q(ECC) ratio, dominant limb; 0.36+/-0.06; 0.34+/-0.07; 0.30+/-0.08; non-dominant limb; 0.33+/-0.05; 0.32+/-0.08; 0.28+/-0.07). Results suggest that the muscle-loading patterns experienced in youth soccer may alter the reciprocal balance of strength about the knee under high-velocity conditions. The findings also indicate that these balances may be improved by incorporating resistance training into the habitual exercise routines of youth soccer players.