Recharge Basins Research Articles

Water infiltration in an aquifer recharge basin affected by temperature and air entrapment

Abstract Artificial basins are used to recharge groundwater and protect water pumping fields. In these basins, infiltration rates are monitored to detect any decrease in water infiltration in relation with clogging. However, miss-estimations of infiltration rate may result from neglecting the effects of water temperature change and air-entrapment. This study aims to investigate the effect of temperature and air entrapment on water infiltration at the basin scale by conducting successive infiltration cycles in an experimental basin of 11869 m2 in a pumping field at Crepieux-Charmy (Lyon, France). A first experiment, conducted in summer 2011, showed a strong increase in infiltration rate; which was linked to a potential increase in ground water temperature or a potential dissolution of air entrapped at the beginning of the infiltration. A second experiment was conducted in summer, to inject cold water instead of warm water, and also revealed an increase in infiltration rate. This increase was linked to air dissolution in the soil. A final experiment was conducted in spring with no temperature contrast and no entrapped air (soil initially water-saturated), revealing a constant infiltration rate. Modeling and analysis of experiments revealed that air entrapment and cold water temperature in the soil could substantially reduce infiltration rate over the first infiltration cycles, with respective effects of similar magnitude. Clearly, both water temperature change and air entrapment must be considered for an accurate assessment of the infiltration rate in basins.

Transport of road salt contamination in karst aquifers and soils over multiple timescales

Road deicing has caused widespread environmental Na+ and Cl− release for decades, yet the transport and retention of these contaminants in karst aquifers and soils are poorly understood. We examined the transport dynamics of Na+ and Cl− from road salt in shallow groundwater during flooding and over seasonal timescales by intensively monitoring an urban and a rural karst spring over approximately 2 years. Furthermore, we used a 20-year dataset for the rural spring to determine how salt retention affected long-term geochemical trends in the shallow groundwater. Salt transport was governed by hydrologic pathways through karst aquifers: during winter and early spring floods, flow through preferential pathways rapidly transported salty meltwater or stormwater over hours to days, while the remaining salt-contaminated water moved diffusely through the rock matrix on timescales of months to years. Flood hydrograph separations revealed that event water constituted 61.2% of stormflow on average at the urban spring, leading to more extreme variability in salt concentrations during flooding and throughout the year. This variability indicates that baseflow contributions to urban streams overlying karst aquifers with preferential flowpaths are likely less effective at buffering salt concentrations. In contrast, salt concentrations were less variable in the baseflow-dominated rural spring (28.7% event water). Furthermore, salt was episodically released from soils to shallow groundwater throughout the year during first flush events. A Cl− mass balance indicates that Cl− applied during previous winters persists within the springs' recharge basins for more than a year, raising baseline concentrations as road salt is introduced faster than it can be flushed from the basin. Inter-annual salt retention by soils or slow groundwater movement likely caused significant Cl− and specific conductivity (SpC) increases at the rural spring from 1996 to 2016. Accumulation of salt in shallow groundwater can elevate baseflow concentrations in surface waters, where it threatens aquatic organisms.

Using basic metrics to analyze high-resolution temperature data in the subsurface

Time-series temperature data can be summarized to provide valuable information on spatial variation in subsurface flow, using simple metrics. Such computationally light analysis is often discounted in favor of more complex models. However, this study demonstrates the merits of summarizing high-resolution temperature data, obtained from a fiber optic cable installation at several depths within a water delivery channel, into daily amplitudes and mean temperatures. These results are compared to fluid flux estimates from a one-dimensional (1D) advection-conduction model and to the results of a previous study that used a full three-dimensional (3D) model. At a depth of 0.1 m below the channel, plots of amplitude suggested areas of advective water movement (as confirmed by the 1D and 3D models). Due to lack of diurnal signal at depths below 0.1 m, mean temperature was better able to identify probable areas of water movement at depths of 0.25–0.5 m below the channel. The high density of measurements provided a 3D picture of temperature change over time within the study reach, and would be suitable for long-term monitoring in man-made environments such as constructed wetlands, recharge basins, and water-delivery channels, where a firm understanding of spatial and temporal variation in infiltration is imperative for optimal functioning.

Assessing the Impact of Recycled Water Quality and Clogging on Infiltration Rates at A Pioneering Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT) Site in Alice Springs, Northern Territory (NT), Australia

Infiltration techniques for managed aquifer recharge (MAR), such as soil aquifer treatment (SAT) can facilitate low-cost water recycling and supplement groundwater resources. However there are still challenges in sustaining adequate infiltration rates in the presence of lower permeability sediments, especially when wastewater containing suspended solids and nutrients is used to recharge the aquifer. To gain a better insight into reductions in infiltration rates during MAR, a field investigation was carried out via soil aquifer treatment (SAT) using recharge basins located within a mixture of fine and coarse grained riverine deposits in Alice Springs, Northern Territory, Australia. A total of 2.6 Mm3 was delivered via five SAT basins over six years; this evaluation focused on three years of operation (2011–2014), recharging 1.5 Mm3 treated wastewater via an expanded recharge area of approximately 38,400 m2. Average infiltration rates per basin varied from 0.1 to 1 m/day due to heterogeneous soil characteristics and variability in recharge water quality. A treatment upgrade to include sand filtration and UV disinfection (in 2013) prior to recharge improved the average infiltration rate per basin by 40% to 100%.

Observations and Prediction of Recovered Quality of Desalinated Seawater in the Strategic ASR Project in Liwa, Abu Dhabi

To be able to overcome water shortages, Abu Dhabi Emirate started an Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR) project with desalinated seawater (DSW) as source water near Liwa. It is the largest DSW-ASR project in the world (stored volume ~10 Mm3/year), and should recover potable water for direct use. DSW is infiltrated into a desert dune sand aquifer using “sand-covered gravel-bed” recharge basins. In this study, we evaluate the hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical stratification of the (sub)oxic target aquifer, and water quality changes of DSW during trial infiltration runs. We predict water quality changes of DSW after 824 d of infiltration, during 90 d of intensive recovery (67% recovered) without storage (scenario A), as well as after 10 years of storage (scenario B, with significant bubble drift). Monitoring of preceding trials revealed a lack of redox reactions; little carbonate dissolution and Ca/Na exchange; much SiO2 dissolution; a strong mobilization of natural AsO43−, B, Ba, F, CrO42−, Mo, Sr and V from the (sub)oxic aquifer; and immobilization of PO4, Al, Cu, Fe and Ni from DSW. The Easy-Leacher model was applied in forward and reverse mode including lateral bubble drift, to predict water quality of the recovered water. We show that hydrogeochemical modeling of a complex ASR-system can be relatively easy and straightforward, if aquifer reactivity is low and redox reactions can be ignored. The pilot observations and modeling results demonstrate that in scenario A recovered water quality still complies with Abu Dhabi’s drinking water standards (even up to 85% recovery). For scenario B, however, the recovery efficiency declines to 60% after which various drinking water standards are exceeded, especially the one for chromium.

Watershed Response to Climate Change and Fire-Burns in the Upper Umatilla River Basin, USA

This study analyzed watershed response to climate change and forest fire impacts in the upper Umatilla River Basin (URB), Oregon, using the precipitation runoff modeling system. Ten global climate models using Coupled Intercomparison Project Phase 5 experiments with Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5 were used to simulate the effects of climate and fire-burns on runoff behavior throughout the 21st century. We observed the center timing (CT) of flow, seasonal flows, snow water equivalent (SWE) and basin recharge. In the upper URB, hydrologic regime shifts from a snow-rain-dominated to rain-dominated basin. Ensemble mean CT occurs 27 days earlier in RCP 4.5 and 33 days earlier in RCP 8.5, in comparison to historic conditions (1980s) by the end of the 21st century. After forest cover reduction in the 2080s, CT occurs 35 days earlier in RCP 4.5 and 29 days earlier in RCP 8.5. The difference in mean CT after fire-burns may be due to projected changes in the individual climate model. Winter flow is projected to decline after forest cover reduction in the 2080s by 85% and 72% in RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, in comparison to 98% change in ensemble mean winter flows in the 2080s before forest cover reduction. The ratio of ensemble mean snow water equivalent to precipitation substantially decreases by 81% and 91% in the 2050s and 2080s before forest cover reduction and a decrease of 90% in RCP 4.5 and 99% in RCP 8.5 in the 2080s after fire-burns. Mean basin recharge is 10% and 14% lower in the 2080s before fire-burns and after fire-burns, and it decreases by 13% in RCP 4.5 and decreases 22% in RCP 8.5 in the 2080s in comparison to historical conditions. Mixed results for recharge after forest cover reduction suggest that an increase may be due to the size of burned areas, decreased canopy interception and less evaporation occurring at the watershed surface, increasing the potential for infiltration. The effects of fire on the watershed system are strongly indicated by a significant increase in winter seasonal flows and a slight reduction in summer flows. Findings from this study may improve adaptive management of water resources, flood control and the effects of fire on a watershed system.

Maximizing Infiltration Rates by Removing Suspended Solids: Results of Demonstration Testing of Riverbed Filtration in Orange County, California †

Clogging due to the accumulation of suspended solids is a major constraint that limits the capacity of Orange County Water District’s (OCWD) surface water recharge system. In order to decrease clogging and increase system capacity, OCWD is testing the ability of riverbed filtration to reduce suspended solids concentrations and improve recharge rates. Riverbed filtration is achieved through a shallow subsurface collector system placed approximately one meter below the surface. Filtered water from the collector system is conveyed by gravity to the receiving recharge basin. Initial results show that riverbed filtration is highly effective in removing suspended solids in the recharge water, which in turn also greatly increases the recharge capacity of the receiving basin. Some other water quality benefits are also achieved. Data collected thus far indicate that it will be cost-effective to use this approach at a larger scale to capture and recharge increased quantities of storm flow obtained from the Santa Ana River.

Analytical Solution of Linearized Boussinesq Equation for Unsteady Seepage Flow in Ditch-Drain Sloping Aquifer

Analytical Solution of Linearized Boussinesq Equation for Unsteady Seepage Flow in Ditch-Drain Sloping Aquifer This paper presents a generalized solution of linearized Boussinesq equation to predict unsteady flow of subsurface seepage induced by localized recharge over sloping ditch-drain aquifer. The mathematical model is based on Boussinesq equation with Dupuit-Forchheimer assumption in which the spatial location of the recharge basin is treated as an additional parameter. Analytical expressions for water head distribution in the aquifer and discharge rate into the ditches are obtained by solving the governing flow equation with eigenvalue-eigenfunction method. Upward and zero sloping cases are deduced from the main results by appropriately adjusting the slope parameter. A numerical example illustrates the combined influence of bed slope, recharge rate and spatial coordinate of the recharge basin on the dynamic profiles of phreatic surface.

Identifying the groundwater basin boundaries, using environmental isotopes: a case study

Groundwater, which is renewable under current climatic conditions separately from other natural sources, in fact is a finite resource in terms of quality and fossil groundwater. Researchers have long emphasized the necessity of exploiting, operating, conserving and managing groundwater in an efficient and sustainable manner with an integrated water management approach. The management of groundwater needs reliable information about changes on groundwater quantity and quality. Environmental isotopes are the most important tools to provide this support. No matter which method we use to calculate the groundwater budget and flow equations, we need to determine boundary conditions or the physical boundaries of the domain. The Groundwater divide line or basin boundaries that separate the two adjacent basin recharge areas from each other must be drawn correctly to be successful in defining complex groundwater basin boundary conditions. Environmental isotope data, as well as other methods provide support for determining recharge areas of the aquifers, especially for karst aquifers, residence time and interconnections between aquifer systems. This study demonstrates the use of environmental isotope data to interpret and correct groundwater basin boundaries giving as an example the Yeniçıkrı basin within the main Sakarya basin.

Groundwater residence time and aquifer recharge in multilayered, semi-confined and faulted aquifer systems using environmental tracers

The potential of environmental tracers (δ18O, δ2H, δ13C, 14C, 4He, 20Ne, 40Ar, N2) to assist our understanding of recharge processes, groundwater flow velocities and residence times in semi-confined, multilayered and faulted aquifer systems was tested in a coastal system with Quaternary sediments overlying Tertiary aquifers and fractured bedrock. Carbon-14 groundwater ages were found to increase with depth and distance (<1000y near the recharge area to >30,000y near the coast), confirming that the system is semi-confined and the palaeometeoric origin of groundwater as suggested by water stable isotopes. The presence of old groundwater near the top of deep semi-confined aquifers suggests that recharge mainly occurs in the ranges east of the basin. This is also supported by Cl concentrations, which are higher in the overlying Quaternary aquifers. Groundwater flow velocities between 0.3 and 1.8my−1 were estimated using 14C ages, resulting in basin recharge estimates between 0.3×107 and 2×107m3y−1. Radiocarbon and 4He-estimated flow velocities were generally in good agreement, although 4He accumulation rates ranging between 8×10−12 and 1×10−10cm3STPg−1y−1 and 1.7–7.1×10−7cm3STPg−1km−1 confirmed slower flow velocities in some areas. These areas could not be captured using 14C. Faults were found to play a paramount role on mixing old fluids rich in salts and 4He, although it was not possible to demonstrate the role of faults in changing flow velocities, this requiring a higher density of sampling points. Our study shows that environmental tracers have potential to study flow processes in semi-confined, faulted, multilayered aquifer systems, provided a high density of sampling points is available.

On-farm flood capture could reduce groundwater overdraft in Kings River Basin

Chronic groundwater overdraft threatens agricultural sustainability in California's Central Valley. Diverting flood flows onto farmland for groundwater recharge offers an opportunity to help address this challenge. We studied the infiltration rate of floodwater diverted from the Kings River at a turnout upstream of the James Weir onto adjoining cropland; and calculated how much land would be necessary to capture the available floodwater, how much recharge of groundwater might be achieved, and the costs. The 1,000-acre pilot study included fields growing tomatoes, wine grapes, alfalfa and pistachios. Flood flows diverted onto vineyards infiltrated at an average rate of 2.5 inches per day under sustained flooding. At that relatively high infiltration rate, 10 acres are needed to capture one CFS of diverted flood flow. We considered these findings in the context of regional expansion. Based upon a 30-year record of Kings Basin surplus flood flows, we estimate 30,000 acres operated for on-farm flood recharge would have had the capacity to capture 80% of available flood flows and potentially offset overdraft rates in the Kings Basin. Costs of on-farm flood capture for this study were estimated at $36 per acre-foot, less than the cost for surface water storage and dedicated recharge basins.

Tracer test modeling for characterizing heterogeneity and local-scale residence time distribution in an artificial recharge site

Abstract. Artificial recharge of aquifers is a technique for improving water quality and increasing groundwater resources. Understanding the fate of a potential contaminant requires knowledge of the residence time distribution (RTD) of the recharged water in the aquifer beneath. A simple way to obtain the RTDs is to perform a tracer test. We performed a pulse injection tracer test in an artificial recharge system through an infiltration basin to obtain the breakthrough curves, which directly yield the RTDs. The RTDs turned out to be very broad and we used a numerical model to interpret them, to characterize heterogeneity, and to extend the model to other flow conditions. The model comprised nine layers at the site scaled to emulate the layering of aquifer deposits. Two types of hypotheses were considered: homogeneous (all flow and transport parameters identical for every layer) and heterogeneous (diverse parameters for each layer). The parameters were calibrated against the head and concentration data in both model types, which were validated quite satisfactorily against 1,1,2-Trichloroethane and electrical conductivity data collected over a long period of time with highly varying flow conditions. We found that the broad RTDs can be attributed to the complex flow structure generated under the basin due to three-dimensionality and time fluctuations (the homogeneous model produced broad RTDs) and the heterogeneity of the media (the heterogeneous model yielded much better fits). We conclude that heterogeneity must be acknowledged to properly assess mixing and broad RTDs, which are required to explain the water quality improvement of artificial recharge basins.

Chemical and mechanical clogging of groundwater abstraction wells at well field Heel, the Netherlands

Well field Heel, in the south east of the Netherlands, consists of a row of wells drilled in an anoxic pyrite-containing aquifer alongside a former gravel pit, which now serves as a recharge basin, where water is actively aerated. All wells are seriously affected by chemical (screen slot) and/or mechanical (well bore) clogging. The objective of this study is to explain this combined occurrence. A combination of chemical, hydraulic and well-maintenance data indicate three groundwater quality types: (1) oxic basin water, (2) anoxic iron-containing basin water after oxidation of the traversed aquifer, and (3) deeply anoxic native groundwater. Wells abstracting a mixture of oxic basin water and anoxic basin water and/or native groundwater experience chemical well clogging, whereas wells abstracting (only or partly) native groundwater are vulnerable to mechanical well clogging. In the end, after oxic basin water has completely oxidized the traversed the aquifer, only two groundwater quality types will be present. Wells abstracting only oxic basin water will show no clogging, and wells abstracting a mixture of native groundwater and oxic basin water will experience chemical and possibly also mechanical well clogging. In this reasoning, the sequence in abstracted groundwater quality types coincides with a sequence in well clogging: from mechanical to chemical to no clogging. As well field Heel is situated in sloping terrain, the interplay between regional hydraulic gradient and different water qualities results in one-sided chemical clogging in the upper part of the well screen during abstraction, and in the lower part during the resting phase.

Application of 3D-fluorescence/PARAFAC to monitor the performance of managed aquifer recharge facilities

3D-fluorescence spectroscopy was used as a monitoring tool to describe the fate and transport of dissolved organic matter (DOM) during groundwater recharge using recycled water, imported water, and stormwater at a managed aquifer recharge site in California. The study was supplemented by analysis of conservative wastewater-derived trace organic chemicals using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Parallel factor analyses (PARAFAC) yielded six different independent fluorophoric components by mathematically decomposing the excitation emission spectra. The results revealed that this approach was successful in showing the decrease of chromophoric DOM in the subsurface over time and distance during recharge and detecting anthropogenic contaminations that were introduced into the recharge basins, most likely from weed and vector control applications. PARAFAC was able to extract at least one herbicide with chromophoric features from surface and groundwater excitation-emission matrices, suggesting that this approach could also be applied as a pollution control tool for hazardous events.

Field Investigation of a New Recharge Approach for ASR Projects in Near-Surface Aquifers.

Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) is the artificial recharge and temporary storage of water in an aquifer when water is abundant, and recovery of all or a portion of that water when it is needed. One key limiting factor that still hinders the effectiveness of ASR is the high costs of constructing, maintaining, and operating the artificial recharge systems. Here we investigate a new recharge method for ASR in near-surface unconsolidated aquifers that uses small-diameter, low-cost wells installed with direct-push (DP) technology. The effectiveness of a DP well for ASR recharge is compared with that of a surface infiltration basin at a field site in north-central Kansas. The performance of the surface basin was poor at the site due to the presence of a shallow continuous clay layer, identified with DP profiling methods, that constrained the downward movement of infiltrated water and significantly reduced the basin recharge capacity. The DP well penetrated through this clay layer and was able to recharge water by gravity alone at a much higher rate. Most importantly, the costs of the DP well, including both the construction and land costs, were only a small fraction of those for the infiltration basin. This low-cost approach could significantly expand the applicability of ASR as a water resources management tool to entities with limited fiscal resources, such as many small municipalities and rural communities. The results of this investigation demonstrate the great potential of DP wells as a new recharge option for ASR projects in near-surface unconsolidated aquifers.

Unsteady seepage flow over sloping beds in response to multiple localized recharge

New generalized solutions of linearized Boussinesq equation are derived to approximate the dynamic behavior of subsurface seepage flow induced by multiple localized time-varying recharges over sloping ditch–drain aquifer system. The mathematical model is based on extended Dupuit–Forchheimer assumption and treats the spatial location of recharge basins as additional parameter. Closed form analytic expressions for spatio-temporal variations in water head distribution and discharge rate into the drains are obtained by solving the governing flow equation using eigenvalue–eigenfunction method. Downward and zero-sloping aquifers are treated as special cases of main results. A numerical example is used for illustration of combined effects of various parameters such as spatial coordinates of the recharge basin, aquifer’s bed slope, and recharge rate on the dynamic profiles of phreatic surface.

Transient-State Analytical Solution for Groundwater Recharge in Anisotropic Sloping Aquifer

The Boussinesq equation has been proved reliable for modeling water table fluctuations in response to external excitations imposed on the aquifer system. This study presents an analytical solution for two-dimensional linearized Boussinesq equation in anisotropic, rectangular-shaped aquifers with sloping impermeable base. Two different configurations of hydrogeological boundary conditions (constant-head and no-flow) are examined. The analytical model is capable of describing the groundwater head distribution due to downward transient recharge from an overlying basin. First, a transformation technique is adopted in order to simplify the mathematical treatment of the problem. Closed form expression for point-recharge is then obtained by applying the method of Green’s function and eigenfunction expansion. This allows treating any arbitrary-shaped recharge basin subject to spatiotemporal varying recharge. It is shown that a number of existing analytical groundwater models may be regarded as special cases of the solution presented herein. Finally, hypothetical examples describing the nature of transient recharge in sloping aquifers are presented. Qualitative examination of the resulting water table maps confirms the validity of the solution, particularly in the vicinity of aquifer borders. Sensitivity analysis is performed to demonstrate how groundwater mounding is affected by variation in various hydrogeological parameters.

Estimates of net infiltration in arid basins and potential impacts on recharge and solute flux due to land use and vegetation change

Summary Human impacts on land use and vegetation in arid basins have, in some regions, altered infiltration, recharge, and groundwater chemistry. However, some modeling approaches currently used do not account for these effects. In the Trans-Pecos region of Texas the presence of modern water, increasing groundwater NO3− concentrations, and vadose zone cores flushed of naturally accumulated solutes belie the notion that basin groundwater is unaffected by overlying land use and vegetation change. Recharge to the Trans-Pecos basins is spatially and temporally variable, and due to human impacts it has likely changed since pre-western settlement time (circa 1850s). By using the INFIL 3.0.1 model, a spatially distributed model of net infiltration, the volume and spatial distribution of net infiltration was examined for two basins, Wild Horse/Michigan Flats and Lobo/Ryan Flats, with model simulations designed to examine the effects of irrigated agriculture and human impacts on vegetation. Model results indicate that recharge to the basins is not limited to mountain-front zones and discrete features (i.e., alluvial channels), rather, irrigation return flow contributes an estimated 6.3 × 107 m3 (408 mm) of net infiltration over 40 yrs and net infiltration on the basin floors could contribute between 7% and 11.5% of annual basin recharge. Model results also indicate that net infiltration may be higher under current vegetation regimes than in pre-western settlement conditions; the removal of thick dense grasslands in INFIL model simulations enhanced net infiltration by 48% or more. Results from distributed models (like INFIL) improve upon scientific understanding of the links between vegetation regime and hydrological processes; this is important for the sustainable management of arid basin aquifers in Texas and elsewhere.

Economic Feasibility of Irrigated Agricultural Land Use Buffers to Reduce Groundwater Nitrate in Rural Drinking Water Sources

Agricultural irrigation leachate is often the largest source for aquifer recharge in semi-arid groundwater basins, but contamination from fertilizers and other agro-chemicals may degrade the quality of groundwater. Affected communities are frequently economically disadvantaged, and water supply alternatives may be too costly. This study aimed to demonstrate that, when addressing these issues, environmental sustainability and market profitability are not incompatible. We investigated the viability of two low impact crops, alfalfa and vineyards, and new recharge basins as an alternative land use in recharge buffer zones around affected communities using an integrated hydrologic, socio-geographic, and economic analysis. In the southern Central Valley, California, study area, alfalfa and vineyards currently constitute 30% of all buffer zone cropland. Economic analyses of alternative land use scenarios indicate a wide range of revenue outcomes. Sector output gains and potential cost saving through land use conversion and resulting flood control result in gains of at least $2.3 billion, as compared to costs of $0.3 to $0.7 billion for treatment options over a 20 year period. Buffer zones would maintain the economic integrity of the region and concur with prevailing policy options. Thus, managed agricultural recharge buffer zones are a potentially attractive option for communities facing financial constraint and needing to diversify their portfolio of policy and infrastructure approaches to meet drinking water quality objectives.

WATER TABLE FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO TIME VARYING RECHARGE IN A 1-D FLOW SYSTEM FROM RECHARGE BASIN

The numerical solution of a 1-D linearized Boussinesq's equation is presented to predict the water table fluctuations in an unconfined aquifer due to time varying recharge from recharge (rectangular) basin for an one canal. The solution is obtained by using finite difference method. Characteristic behaviours of the solution are illustrated with the help of a numerical example to predict the water table fluctuations.