Receiving Child Care Research Articles

Impact of Genetic Relatedness and Emotional Closeness on Intergenerational Relations

Both emotional closeness and genetic relatedness are known to influence helping behavior between family generations, yet few studies have explored them together. The authors investigated the associations between (a) parenthood and perceived emotional closeness toward own parents and parents‐in‐law and (b) emotional closeness and receiving child care from grandparents across and within lineage lines. The data include information on the 8 dyads of possible parent–grandparent relations from a nationally representative survey of young adults in Finland (born 1962–1990, sample N = 1,216). The results show that parenthood was associated with women's emotional closeness to their own mothers and men's emotional closeness to their parents‐in‐law. Maternal grandmothers provided the most grandchild care. After controlling for emotional closeness, the difference in child care provision between one's own mother and one's mother‐in‐law disappeared for women but was accentuated in men. Thus, emotional closeness shapes intergenerational relations differently for kin and in‐laws.

Child-Care Support by Nonresident Fathers: Are More Fathers Better?

We examine whether low-income mothers receive child care from their children’s nonresident fathers or nonresident fathers’ relatives, particularly asking whether mothers who have children with more than one nonresident father are more or less likely to receive child care. Using data from the Survey of Wisconsin Works Families, we find that about 44 percent of low-income mothers of children with nonresident fathers receive some child care from nonresident fathers or nonresident fathers’ relatives. Logit analyses show that those who have children with more than one nonresident father are more likely to receive child care than those who have children with a single nonresident father. The research shows that it is important to count child-care provision among the types of support that nonresident fathers provide and that, when examining assistance mothers receive from nonresident fathers, we should consider the package of support that a mother receives from all nonresident fathers and their relatives.

Understanding the Relationship Between Instability in Child Care and Instability in Employment for Families With Subsidized Care

Through the federal child care funding and unspent Temporary Assistance to Needy Families funds, states provide subsidies for child care to some employed parents who are income-eligible. Subsidies cannot alter labor market conditions or stabilize low-wage jobs, but they can stabilize child care arrangements. With stable child care, policy makers hope parents’ workforce participation will be more stable. While researchers agree there is a strong relationship between stability in child care and stability in employment, how they are related is not clear. What drives instability in child care and instability in employment, and does instability in one arena affect the other? How might subsidies affect stability in either arena? Using data from in-depth interviews with 44 parents who received child care subsidies in Oregon, we explore the nuanced and often complex relationship between child care stability and employment stability and the effect of subsidies on that stability.

The Influence of Maternal Health Literacy and Child’s Age on Participation in Social Welfare Programs

The objective of this study is to determine the influence of maternal health literacy and child's age on participation in social welfare programs benefiting children. In a longitudinal prospective cohort study of 560 Medicaid-eligible mother-infant dyads recruited in Philadelphia, maternal health literacy was assessed using the test of functional health literacy in adults (short version). Participation in social welfare programs [Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF), Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), child care subsidy, and public housing] was self-reported at child's birth, and at the 6, 12, 18, 24 month follow-up interviews. Generalized estimating equations quantified the strength of maternal health literacy as an estimator of program participation. The mothers were primarily African-Americans (83%), single (87%), with multiple children (62%). Nearly 24% of the mothers had inadequate or marginal health literacy. Children whose mothers had inadequate health literacy were less likely to receive child care subsidy (adjusted OR = 0.54, 95% CI 0.34-0.85) than children whose mothers had adequate health literacy. Health literacy was not a significant predictor for TANF, SNAP, WIC or housing assistance. The predicted probability for participation in all programs decreased from birth to 24 months. Most notably, predicted WIC participation declined rapidly after age one. During the first 24 months, mothers with inadequate health literacy could benefit from simplified or facilitated child care subsidy application processes. Targeted outreach and enrollment efforts conducted by social welfare programs need to take into account the changing needs of families as children age.

Subsidized child care, maternal employment and access to quality, affordable child care

To examine whether state child care subsidy policies can combine goals of increasing maternal employment and increasing access to quality child care for children in low-income families, we studied one state's comprehensive policy, through a cross-sectional survey of 665 randomly selected families using centers, Head Starts, family child care homes, public school preschools or informal care, including a sample of families on the waitlist for child care subsidies. We found that, in Massachusetts, families receiving child care subsidies report greater access to child care, more affordable child care, and higher quality child care, than do similar families not receiving subsidies. Lower-income families not receiving subsidies can sometimes access affordable, quality child care through Head Start programs and public preschools, but, when they have to pay for care, they pay a significantly greater proportion of their income than do families receiving subsidies. We also found that families on the subsidy waitlist are at a particular disadvantage. Waitlist families have the greatest difficulty paying for care, the least access, and the poorest quality child care. While the child care subsidy policies benefited those families receiving subsidies, families outside the system still struggled to find and afford child care.

Family child care in four Midwestern states: Multiple measures of quality and relations to outcomes by licensed status and subsidy program participation

Quality of family child care in four Midwestern states was examined using four measures designed to assess structural and/or process quality to determine if dimensions converge or vary across types of family child care (licensed and license-exempt/registered) and subsidy receipt (programs serving children whose care is paid by subsidies and programs not serving subsidized children). Two instruments designed specifically for use with family child care that measure both structural and process quality were used (Family Day Care Rating Scale and Quality Instrument for Informal Child Care), as well as one instrument measuring process quality (Caregiver Interaction Scale) and one instrument measuring structural quality (Midwest Child Care Assets Index). The two instruments designed to measure both structural and process quality in family child care were highly correlated with each other, while both of these were moderately correlated with the measure of process quality. The measure of structural quality was not significantly correlated with the measure of process quality. Licensed family child care homes scored higher than license-exempt/registered family child care homes on three of the four measures (all but the Caregiver Interaction Scale), and family child care homes receiving child care subsidies scored lower than those not receiving subsidies on three of the four measures (all but the Assets Index).

Child Care as a Work Support

Research has shown that welfare policy plays a significant role in the subordination of women, and with each new policy iteration, it is important to continue to expose the way in which policy intentionally or unintentionally places women at a disadvantage. Using a socialist feminist framework, this article explores child care as a work-support benefit and the realities of the lived experience of those who receive child care subsidies. This policy is examined for its role in subordinating women as they attempt to navigate both work and family responsibilities while trying to move toward financial independence.

Parent Experiences with State Child Care Subsidy Systems and Their Perceptions of Choice and Quality in Care Selected

Research Findings: This study investigated parents’ experiences using Child Care and Development Fund and other state-dispersed child care subsidies, reasons for choosing their current child care program, and perceptions of the quality of child care received from their current program. A telephone survey of 659 parents receiving child care subsidies in 4 states showed that parents gave generally positive ratings to accessibility and reliability of subsidies, reported that child care subsidies were a substantial benefit to them, and gave low ratings to limitations of child care subsidies. However, 40% of parents reported that they had experienced a disruption in eligibility for subsidy. Parent experiences with child care subsidies varied by state. Parents in the sample identified 4 criteria used to choose their child care program: (a) characteristics of the provider, (b) convenience, (c) whether the provider was licensed or accredited, and (d) whether a personal relationship existed with the provider. Selection criteria varied by type of care parents were using. The majority of the participants rated the overall quality of their child care as perfect or excellent (73.6%), but ratings of quality also varied by the type of child care parents were using. Practice or Policy: Implications for child care subsidy program administration and for improving the quality of child care purchased by public subsidies in the context of parental choice are discussed.

Breastfeeding Duration in Relation to Child Care Arrangement and Participation in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children

This study was conducted to examine associations among breastfeeding duration, child care arrangement, and participation in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). The authors analyzed the nationally representative sample of infants born in 2001 who were enrolled in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (9 months). They estimated the risks of short breastfeeding duration (< 6 months of age) among infants according to the child care arrangement and WIC participation (n = 7515). Approximately 50% of US infants were enrolled in WIC, and 47% received child care on a regular basis. Both WIC participation and child care use were independently associated with short breastfeeding duration. Compared to those under parental care, WIC participants under relative care were more likely to discontinue breastfeeding before the age of 6 months. A breastfeeding support program targeted toward relative care users may be useful for WIC participants.

A method for estimating child poverty rates, projections for the short-term and the relationship between child poverty and child care subsidy receipt at the county level

At present, county level annual poverty rates for broad age groups at different poverty thresholds are not readily available. Unlike the 2000 census, the 2010 census did not collect income data to allow calculation of poverty rates, and future decennial censuses will not. Thus, there is a need for a method to estimate annual poverty rates at the county level. To fill in the existing gap, this paper develops a method conceptually similar to the regression-based modeling approach utilized for Census Bureau Small Area Estimates (SAIPE). This is applied to estimate and project the proportion of children less than 12 years of age whose income is below the 200% poverty threshold, by county in New York State from 2008 to 2010. Multiple regression techniques including random effects and Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) models are applied. Data obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau, the American Community Survey and administrative sources are utilized. Administrative data sources adjust for, incorporate and model recent changes in the county economic situation. Finally, this paper contributes to the literature on county level relationships between poverty rates and income-based benefits, particularly on child care subsidies. Specifically, the association between the proportion of children receiving child care subsidies and child poverty rates vary by metropolitan, micropolitan and non-core-based designation of counties.

Child care subsidies and care arrangements of low-income parents

Abstract While enrollment into early education programs has increased significantly in the past two decades, many low-income children still do not attend these programs due to lack of funding and access. This study uses data from the 2005 National Household Education Survey to examine the effects of child care subsidies on the enrollment of low-income children in early childhood education programs. Multinomial regression results show that families that receive child care subsidies are more likely to place their child in center-based preschool programs. The analyses also show that subsidy receipt increases the probability of using center care for low-income households. These findings indicate that policies aimed at increasing funding and availability of early education for low-income families can help close the gap in enrollment.

Oral health content of early education and child care regulations and standards.

Almost two out of every three US children younger than five receive child care from someone other than their parents. Health promotion in early education and child care (EECC) programs can improve the general health of children and families, but little is known about the role of these programs in oral health. We identified U.S. EECC program guidelines and assessed their oral health recommendations for infants and toddlers. State licensing regulations were obtained from the National Resource Center for Health and Safety in Child Care's online database. Professional standards were identified through a search of PubMed, early childhood organizations' websites, and early childhood literature. All EECC guidelines were reviewed for key terms related to oral health promotion in children and summarized by domains. Thirty-six states include oral health in their licensing regulations, but recommendations are limited and most often address the storage of toothbrushes. Eleven sets of standards were identified, four of which make recommendations about oral health. Standards from the American Academy of Pediatrics/American Public Health Association (AAP/APHA) and the Office of Head Start (OHS) provide the most comprehensive oral health recommendations regarding screening and referral, classroom activities, and education. Detailed guidelines for oral health practices exist but they exhibit large variation in number and content. States can use the comprehensive standards from the AAP/APHA and OHS to inform and strengthen the oral health content of their licensing regulations. Research is needed to determine compliance with regulations and standards, and their effect on oral health.

Influence of Maternal Health Literacy on Child Participation in Social Welfare Programs: The Philadelphia Experience

We examined the influence of maternal health literacy on child participation in social welfare programs. In this cohort, 20% of the mothers had inadequate or marginal health literacy. Initially, more than 50% of the families participated in Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), the Food Stamp Program, and Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children, whereas fewer than 15% received child care subsidies or public housing. In multivariate regression, TANF participation was more than twice as common among children whose mothers had adequate health literacy compared with children whose mothers had inadequate health literacy.

Child care subsidy patterns: Are exits related to economic setbacks or economic successes?

Using a recent cohort of single mothers who received child care subsidies, this study explores the extent to which low-income families utilize subsidies, factors associated with subsidy exit, and whether these factors have differential influences on the various types of exit from the subsidy program (i.e., exit with high earnings, low earnings, or job loss). The study uses Wisconsin administrative data and explores five years of subsidy receipt by families who began receiving subsidies between March 2000 and February 2001. Separate analyses are conducted for mothers with pre-school-age children and mothers with school-age children. Using discrete-time event-history models, the analyses find that subsidy spells tend to end relatively quickly; 55% of mothers with pre-school-age children and 75% of mothers with school-age children left the program within one year after they began receiving subsidies, and most exits are for economic setbacks (job loss or low earnings). The analyses also find that human capital factors, characteristics that represent demand for child care, and contextual factors are all significantly related to subsidy exits, but in different ways for different exit types. The study also highlights differences in subsidy patterns between mothers with pre-school-age and school-age children. Policy and practice implications are discussed.

Labor Force Supply Decisions of Rural Low-Income Mothers

Employment is crucial to the economic well-being of families. Using a multi-state sample of 412 rural low-income mothers, our study identifies factors influencing two employment decisions they make: labor force entry and number of hours supplied. A logistic regression model correctly predicted 80% of mothers’ work participation decisions. Employed mothers were older, better educated, and less likely to suffer from depression; as well as, more likely to have a driver’s license and receive child care assistance and the Earned Income Tax Credit. An estimated labor supply function explained 33% of the variation in hours worked by the 208 employed rural mothers. Higher wages, availability of health insurance, and overtime benefits predicted the number of hours they were willing to work.

The Impact of Child Care Subsidies on Single Mothers’ Work Effort

AbstractAccess to affordable child care is a formidable barrier to employment for many families. Following passage of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) in 1996, funding for child care assistance increased dramatically. Using data from the National Survey of America’s Families (NSAF), the impact of child care subsidies on single mother’s work effort is evaluated. The results indicate that not only are women more likely to be employed when they receive child care subsidies, they are also more likely to be employed full time. Single mothers who reported receiving assistance with child care worked, on average, 9.4 hours more per week than mother’s who did not receive help. While growth in funding for child care has slowed in recent years, findings like the ones presented here highlight the importance of affordable child care in the employment decisions of mothers with young children.

Child Care Use by Low-Income Single Mothers of Preschoolers Born Preterm Versus Those of Preschoolers Born Full Term

This study describes prewelfare reform child care use by 64 primarily low-income single mothers (65.6% African American) with preschoolers (half born preterm). Forty percent used child care for more than 75% of their children's lives, 20% did when not employed. Preschool children born preterm were more likely to receive child care from nonrelatives throughout their lives than children born full term. Children with health problems used a greater number of child care arrangements. Findings suggest addressing child care issues with both employed and nonemployed mothers and adequacy of child care for children with special needs.

Infectious Disease: Increases in vaccination coverage for children in child care, 1997 to 2000: an evaluation of the impact of government incentives and initiatives

To compare vaccination coverage of children in child care before (1997) and after (2000) implementation of government immunisation strategies including parent/providers incentives and surveillance of vaccination uptake. Cross-sectional parent surveys of vaccination coverage for children (<3 years old regularly attending child care) in 47 child care centres and 19 councils operating family day care in metropolitan Melboume. Data were collected for 1,578 (72%) children in 1997 and 1,793 (72%) in 2000. In 2000, 93% were completely immunised, a 9% (95% CI 6%-11%, p<0.001) increase from 1997. Less than 1% of children were unimmunised (0.8% in 1997, 0.5% in 2000). For those >2 years, 94% were completely immunised before their second birthday in 2000 compared with 80% in 1997. Immunisation levels were 10% (95% Cl 6-12) higher in 2000 than in 1997 for those receiving child care benefits compared with a 7% (95% Cl 3-10) increase for families not receiving benefits. In 1997, 8 (17%) child care centres and 4 (21%) councils reported > or = 90% children completely immunised increasing to 33 (70%) and 16 (84%) in 2000 respectively. Fewer families reported delaying immunisations because of minor illness in 2000 (27%) compared to 1997 (44%, p<.001). Updating immunisation data by child care coordinators increased from 51% in 1997 to 98% in 2000. A substantial increase in immunisation uptake has been achieved for this population of young children attending child care. This study provides evidence that the increase in vaccination rates is attributable to some extent to increased surveillance of immunisation rates and both parent and provider incentives to immunise.

The Cultural Dimension in Childhood

This article emphasizes the fact that culture surrounds and influences the young people in child and youth care programs all the time, and that child and youth care workers must become cultural mediators for the “culturally undernourished” when assisting youth in care. This work must add to “psychological pedagogics” and “social pedagogics” a third new dimension, “cultural pedagogics.” Through raising and answering a series of six questions concerning culture, the author hopes to stimulate better practice and educational training in the cultural preparation of young people receiving child care services.

Reasons for Child Care Choice and Appraisal Among Low-Income Mothers

This article examines what low-income mothers report as important in selecting child care. Reasons for choosing child care were measured using open-ended questions and a checklist in a sample of 1,001 mothers receiving child care subsidies. Structural characteristics of care, child safety, and caregiver characteristics were found to be the most frequently cited reasons for the selection of a child care provider. Nearly all mothers reported being highly satisfied with their current child care. The lack of a working knowledge of child care quality is proposed as an obstacle to children being placed in high quality child care settings.