Real Time Digital Simulator Research Articles

Transformer fault identification based on GWO-optimized Dual-channel M-A method.

In order to improve the accuracy of the transformer fault identification using nature-inspired algorithms, an identification method based on the GWO (Grey Wolf Optimizer)-optimized Dual-channel MLP (Multilayer Perceptron)-Attention is proposed. First, a Dual-channel model is constructed by combining the AM (Attention Mechanism) and MLP. Subsequently, the GWO algorithm is used to optimize the number and the nodes of the hidden layer in the Dual-channel MLP-Attention model. Typical transformer faults are simulated using DDRTS (Digital Dynamic Real-Time Simulator) system. Experiments showed that the GWO- optimized method has an accuracy rate of 95.3%-96.7% in identifying the transformer faults. Compared with BP, SVM, MLP, and single-channel M-A models, the proposed method improved the accuracy by14.1%, 9.6%, 9.3%, and 3.3% respectively. This result indicates the rationality and effectiveness of the proposed method in transformer fault identification.

A new integrated modelling and control of ternary pumped storage hydro power generation for small signal stability studies

Pumped storage hydro power generation (PSHPG), a reliable renewable energy source with an energy storage feature, can impart efficient damping torque to power system oscillations to improve small signal stability with appropriate modelling and additional compensation through the governor. But ternary PSHPG (T-PSHPG) has the unique feature of hydraulic short circuit (HSC) mode, where both pumping and generating modes operate simultaneously. This study presents a novel fourth-order modified Heffron Phillips (MHP) model of T-PSHPG in coordination with a multi-band Power system stabilizer (MB-PSS) employing 2-way penstock, where primary penstock circulates water from the upper reservoir to the lower reservoir through the turbine and secondary penstock divides primary penstock, thereby creating short-circuit path through the pump. Also, this model includes additional reactive power droop control to maintain the voltage profile. A new state space matrix has been developed for coordinating T-PSHPG in HSC mode with MB-PSS. The control parameters of the proposed coordinated model are set by a new multi-objective differential evolution-improved particle swam optimization (DE-IPSO) algorithm. With variable load, random solar and wind source penetrations, it has been found that the proposed model can provide adequate damping actions. The sensitivity of the proposed model has been observed by varying critical model parameters by ±50 %. For all conditions, the settling time of speed variation is within 2.672 s to 5.951 s and the minimum damping ratio lies within 0.105 to 0.455. The minimum damping ratio is 0.32 and the settling time is found to be 3.1 s for system response subject to sudden solar power variation, which has been observed by shifting system eigenvalues toward the left half of the complex plane. Time and frequency domain parameters with sensitivity analysis predict system oscillations being damped effectively with consistency for the proposed modelling and control strategy. The results are verified in real-time with OPAL-RT real-time digital simulator. It has been justified by the present study that appropriate modelling of T-PSHPG along with coordinated control action provided by MB-PSS can handle critical power system oscillations efficiently and effective damping torque can be imparted in HSC mode.

Optimal Energy Management of EVs at Workplaces and Residential Buildings Using Heuristic Graph-Search Algorithm

As the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) continues to rise, efficient scheduling methods that minimize operational costs are critical. This paper introduces a novel EV scheduling method utilizing a heuristic graph-search algorithm for cost minimization due to its admissible nature. The approach optimizes EV charging and discharging schedules by considering real-time energy prices and battery degradation costs. The method is tested on systems with solar generation, electric loads, and EVs featuring vehicle-to-grid (V2G) connections. Various charging rates, such as standard, fast, and supercharging, along with uncertainties in EV arrival and departure times, are factored into the analysis. Results from various case studies demonstrate that the proposed method outperforms popular heuristic optimization techniques, such as particle swarm optimization and genetic algorithms, by 3–5% for different real-time energy prices. Additionally, the method’s effectiveness in reducing operational costs for workplace EVs is confirmed through extensive case studies under varying uncertain conditions. Finally, the system is implemented on a digital real-time simulator with DNP3 communication, where real-time results align closely with offline simulations, confirming the algorithm’s efficacy for real-world applications.

A Reduced-Order Model of a Nuclear Power Plant with Thermal Power Dispatch

This paper presents reduced-order modeling of thermal power dispatch (TPD) from a pressurized water reactor (PWR) for providing heat to nearby heat consuming industrial processes that seek to take advantage of nuclear heat to reduce carbon emissions. The reactor model includes the neutronics of the reactor core, thermal–hydraulics of the primary coolant cycle, and a three-lump model of the steam generator (SG). The secondary coolant cycle is represented with quasi-steady state mass and energy balance equations. The secondary cycle consists of a steam extraction system, high-pressure and low-pressure turbines, moisture separator and reheater, high-pressure and low-pressure feedwater heaters, deaerator, feedwater and condensate pumps, and a condenser. The steam produced by the SG is distributed between the turbines and the extraction steam line (XSL) that delivers steam to nearby industrial processes, such as production of clean hydrogen. The reduced-order simulator is verified by comparing predictions with results from separate validated steady-state and transient full-scope PWR simulators for TPD levels between 0% and 70% of the rated reactor power. All simulators indicate that the flow rate of steam in the main steam line and turbine systems decrease with increasing TPD, which causes a reduction in PWR electric power generation. The results are analyzed to assess the impact of TPD on system efficiency and feedwater flow control. Due to the simplicity of the proposed reduced-order model, it can be scaled to represent a PWR of any size with a few parametric changes. In the future, the proposed reduced-order model will be integrated into a power system model in a digital real-time simulator (DRTS) and physical hardware-in-the-loop simulations.

Enhanced pilot protection scheme for half-wavelength transmission line based on the conservation of traveling wave energy

The half-wavelength transmission system is a viable technology for long-distance and large-capacity power transmission. It can safely and efficiently transmit a large amount of clean energy to remote load centers. However, the traditional traveling wave protection methods have reliability and speed limitations for HWTL lines. To overcome these limitations, this paper proposes a novel and robust pilot protection scheme based on the conservation of traveling wave energy at the protection installation. The proposed scheme uses the constant equation relationship between fault-traveling waves, reflected waves and refracted waves at the measurement end to significantly improve the reliability and effectiveness of the protection mechanism. The blocking protection operation logic constructed by the inequality directional element is used to improve the rapidity of the pilot protection scheme. The theoretical analysis and real-time digital simulator (RTDS) digital-analog hybrid test demonstrate that the action equation of the proposed protection scheme is explicit to the operating value. The novel scheme exhibits enhanced resilience against high transition resistance and the impact of impulse corona while ensuring both reliability and rapidity.© 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

DC fault current clearance coordinated control strategy for DC grid with hybrid MMC

For DC grid based on the hybrid modular multilevel converter (MMC), the traditional DC fault current clearance scheme takes a long time and greatly affects the active power transmission. A novel DC fault current clearance coordinated control strategy is proposed, which can quickly interrupt the fault current and reduce the impact of DC fault on the DC grid and AC system. For fault-line connected MMC (FLMMC), a negative DC voltage control is employed, which can improve the current attenuation speed and ensure reliable fault isolation. For non-fault-line connected MMC (NFLMMC), the active current-limiting control (ACLC) based on the virtual reactor is adopted, which can reduce the current flow to the fault location and further shorten fault isolation time. To reduce the impact on the AC system during the DC fault, a short-time active power support control is designed. Finally, a four-terminal DC grid simulation model is built based on the RT-LAB OP5600 real-time digital simulation platform. The simulation results show that the proposed coordinated control strategy for the DC grid can quickly clear DC fault current, shorten DC fault isolation time, and strengthen active power support capability.

Improved Control Technique for Enhancing Power System Stability in Out-of-Step Conditions

From time to time, a series of unpredictable and conflicting contingencies can lead to angular instability of the power system and even blackouts if not adequately handled by an out-of-step (OOS) protection system. The key contribution of this research work, to the theory of out-of-step protection, is the identification and isolation after a given disruption of many unstable swings. This paper presents a proposed method to avoid false operation for distance function by out-of-step blocking to improve the system stability by using optimally placed PMUs for the fast detection of system analogue quantities. The studies were performed on a modified Eskom transmission network in the Western Cape with 765 kV and 400 kV voltage levels. The aim is to investigate the IEC 61850-90-5 standard for predictive dynamic stability maintaining systems using PMUs for out-of-step conditions of synchronous generators. The power system modelling and simulation are performed in the RSCAD-FX for the proposed multi-area power system network. An experimental lab-scale implementation is built to test the proposed out-of-step algorithm in a real-time digital simulator. Software-based PMU is incorporated to test and validate the IEC 61850-90-5 standard sampled values. Simulation and experimental results are presented.

Examining grid-forming inverters for power restoration using power-hardware in-the-loop and Digital Twins approaches with Real-time Digital Simulation

The current pursuit of ambitious decarbonization targets is driving a swift transformation of the power grid, marked by a surge in the production of renewable energy. The expansion on application of renewable energy hinges significantly on Distributed Energy Resources but system operators are grappling with challenges due to the opaque nature of DER operations. This opacity introduces considerable risks to grid stability, as the burgeoning volume of DERs may surpass the existing power network’s capacity. In response, the advent of Digital Twins (DT) technology offers a viable remedy by creating virtual counterparts of the physical grid infrastructure that necessitate transmitting minimal data. Digital Twins technology circumvents the hindrances associated with real-time data flows and bolsters the transparency of the system. To foster widespread implementation of DT within the sector, it is imperative to cultivate and validate its application through practical trials. To this end, Power Hardware-in-the-Loop (PHIL) experiments are employed to juxtapose the efficacy of actual power components against that of the DT models. The experiments involve connecting Grid-forming Inverter to a Real-time Digital Simulator (RTDS) for PHIL and DT testing, allowing for an in-depth analysis of the behaviour of photovoltaic inverter. This paper elucidates a platform engineered for immediate simulation tailored to DT and PHIL approaches. This platform is designed to prototype, exhibit, and evaluate grid-forming inverters under different scenarios that are critical for power restoration. With the help of simulation exchange, Perez Model is recommended to add in the DT model to increase the accuracy comparing with the PHIL model. The entire restoration process can therefore be comprehensively represented and analysed.

Development of fault location functions in a real digital fault recorder: Computational strategies and validation

This paper shares experiences acquired during the development of a fault location module (FLM) in a real Digital Fault Recorder and Phasor Measurement (DFRPM) device, which has been designed for the Itaipu utility, Brazil. Hardware and software aspects, as well as computational strategies and innovative solutions used to implement the FLM are addressed. The DFRPM fault location module (DFRPM-FLM) is validated by means of simulations in a Real-Time Digital Simulator, considering fault scenarios in high- and low-inertia systems. The case studies reveal that the adopted computational strategies resulted in a flexible and reliable DFRPM-FLM, which showed to be able to automatically estimate the fault location, without the need for human intervention.

Enhancing stability via coordinated control of generators, wind farms, and energy storage: Optimizing system parameters

This study delves into the intricacies of power system stability, specifically addressing the challenges posed by integrating renewable energy sources, primarily focusing on wind power. The intricate dynamic interactions between Synchronous Generators (SGs), Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIGs), and Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) under varying operating conditions necessitate advanced control strategies for effective stabilization. Conventional control methods, such as Power System Stabilizers (PSS) and damping controllers, are scrutinized for their inherent sensitivity to system changes and limitations in mitigating the dynamic complexities arising from integrating Wind Farms (WFs) and BESS. This research accentuates the critical need for synchronized control mechanisms to preempt dynamic instability in power systems, considering factors like wind speed fluctuations, WF integration intricacies, and responses to severe disturbances. The introduction of DFIG-based WFs is particularly examined for its impact on altering system inertia, leading to Low-Frequency Oscillations (LFOs) and diminished damping, thereby heightening stability concerns. The proposed control strategies encompass the integration of BESS, PSS, and coordinated damping controllers meticulously tailored to counteract systemic instability. Recognizing the potential inadequacy of individual control methods during severe disturbances, the study underscores the imperative of synchronized operation between PSS and BESS damping controllers. Furthermore, the investigation sheds light on the pivotal role of uncertainties in power system stability, advocating for a paradigm shift from deterministic methods to more nuanced probabilistic approaches. The proposed coordinated probabilistic control designs, leveraging participation factors for SGs, DFIGs, and BESS, offer a sophisticated solution to mitigate uncertainties and fortify system stability across diverse conditions. A rigorous evaluation employing Real-Time Digital Simulator (RTDS) simulations on the IEEE 9-bus test system substantiates the practical efficacy of the proposed coordinated control approach. The discerned outcomes underscore discernible enhancements in both small signal and transient stability, affirming the practical viability and reliability of the advanced control strategies delineated in this study.

Complex plane based adaptive method for protection of series compensated transmission line using phasor measurement unit data

Though differential relays are preferred for the protection of series-compensated transmission line (SCTL), they may mal-operate during current inversion, high resistance internal faults and current infeed/outfeed situations. Therefore, a new protection scheme for SCTL using Phasor Measurement Unit data, that adaptively manages the operating region in the current ratio complex plane according to the percentage compensation level, is presented. Boundaries of the operating region are determined adaptively based on the estimated impedance value of the series compensation. Usefulness of the technique is confirmed by generating cases covering wide range of fault parameters, compensation level, and load angle on an existing 400 kV Indian SCTL using PSCAD software as well as through Hardware in Loop simulation employing the Real Time Digital Simulator. Reported outcomes reveal the ability of the suggested algorithm in sensing all types of internal faults. Its performance remains unaffected during current/voltage inversion, operation of MOV and/or airgap during high fault current conditions, current infeed/outfeed situation, and external fault with current transformer saturation condition. Impact of the presence of noise in the acquired signals is also analyzed. The suggested technique is applicable for SCTLs having different voltage levels and power flow conditions. The proposed method has higher responsiveness during high resistance internal faults up to 500 Ω and better steadiness during external faults compared to numerous prevailing methods.

Error analysis and improved method of time-domain distance protection for wind power transmission lines

Time-domain distance protection has a good transient performance and operation speed when applied to wind power transmission lines. In this paper, the error analysis and improved method of phase-to-phase time-domain distance protection are investigated. Firstly, based on the time-domain mathematical model, the location error caused by fault resistance is analyzed, and then the algorithmic convergence and accuracy of conventional phase-to-phase distance relay are evaluated. To solve the computational non-convergence problem, an improved phase-to-phase distance relay is proposed, in which the instantaneous negative-sequence current is used to improve the location accuracy, especially during the fault transient stage of wind farms. In order to avoid the protection overreach problem, the threshold selection method is designed based on the maximum allowable error of the calculated distance. According to the proposed method, the corresponding protection device is developed. And the hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) test system is built based on the real-time digital simulation (RTDS) platform. Extensive experimental tests are carried out, to verify the feasibility and superiority of the proposed time-domain distance protection.

Decentralised control strategy for effective utilisation of distributed community energy storage in PV-rich LV distribution network

Integrating a high-capacity residential-scale photovoltaic (PV) system into a low-voltage (LV) network results in voltage rise. Conversely, voltage drops occur during periods of high demand. Furthermore, PV generation characteristics vary with seasonality and daily weather conditions, complicating voltage rise and drop management. On the other hand, community energy storage (CES) emerges as a solution for future community energy management. This study presents an application of distributed CES to effectively manage voltage rise and drop, addressing a prominent challenge accompanying the widespread adoption of PV. However, upon introducing the CES and its accompanying energy capacity, the control strategy must effectively incorporate the utilisation of the CES’s available capacity year-round. In brief, CES control should adapt to the characteristics of PV by charging the CES during high PV generation. It should also release active power to meet high demand by discharging the CES. This will enable both voltage management and effective CES capacity utilisation in response to PV variations due to seasonality and daily weather conditions. The goal mentioned above can be effectively accomplished by forecasting PV output and using the data to adapt to PV characteristics in a centralised manner. However, due to the challenges associated with centralised control, the present paper proposes a decentralised control algorithm that determines charging and discharging power rates for distributed CES, aligning with the PV and load characteristics in an LV distribution network. The proposed control framework consists of two stages: the first stage regularly updates power references based on clear-sky PV profiles, active power measurements at the LV transformer, and CES active power and energy level. The second stage is activated to mitigate voltage transient caused by fast-moving clouds and small increments in solar irradiance, load between consecutive updates of the first stage. To illustrate and validate the concept, a 13-bus LV distribution network is used, and the proposed control algorithm is implemented on a co-simulation platform that combines MATLAB with a real-time digital simulator.

A Novel High-Impedance Fault Detection Technique in Smart Active Distribution Systems

Identification of high impedance fault (HIF) is important in smart active distribution systems (SADSs). The existing protection methods fail to detect HIF, as HIFs have peculiar fault current characteristics. However, if HIFs are left undetected, they result in severe fire hazards and arcing. The paper proposes a novel fault detection indicator that utilizes the differential energy associated with the positive sequence current components during faults. IEEE-13 bus and IEEE-34 bus system is used for simulation in Real Time Digital Simulator (RTDS). The results show that proposed technique accurately identify HIFs and perfectly discriminates the transients due to HIFs, non-linear loads and voltage and reactive power compensation devices. Furthermore, it differentiates HIFs from other switching transients like capacitor or load switching events. Other factors, like transformer inrush currents, effect of noise and sampling rate are also considered to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the proposed method. Moreover, the practical feasibility of the proposed method is also experimentally validated.

Coordinated Control of Intentional Islanding and Phase Sequence Exchange for Enhancing Transient Stability of Isolated Power Grid

An isolated power grid (IPG) is electrically weakly connected to the utility power grid, and intentional controlled islanding (ICI) can secure IPG from external faults. Phase Sequence Exchange (PSE) is a recently developed emergency control technology in which power electronic devices are used to switch the three-phase sequence, thereby reducing the power angle of the generator by 120° and preventing the system from losing stability. This paper proposed a coordinated control scheme for PSE and ICI. After the system is disturbed, the local measurement of the interconnection line between IPG and the utility grid is used to assess the system's stability. PSE is adopted to adjust the power flow direction to reduce the transient energy of IPG. At the same time, using the internal measurement of IPG, the transient energy of IPG is calculated in real-time, and the critical energy is rolling refreshed based on offline information. After PSE reduces the energy of IPG to lower than the critical energy, IPG is safely disconnected from the utility grid. The proposed scheme needless to adjust the internal generator or load of IPG and is verified on the real-time digital simulator (RTDS) platform with a PSE prototype.

Steady state analysis of Multiport Interline DC Current Flow Controller integrated meshed MTDC grids

Flexible DC Transmission Systems (FDCTS) devices offer the most promising solution for Power Flow Management (PFM) problem in complex meshed MTDC grids. This paper proposes a new formulation for steady state analysis of a MTDC grid, integrated with the multiport version of the FDCTS device called Multiport Interline DC Current Flow Controller (MIDCCFC). MIDCCFC can regulate the current flow of two or more lines, thereby achieving line power flow regulation and aid for DC line breaking in a MTDC system. The proposed formulation integrates the steady state operating point of MIDCCFC with the MTDC system. The proposed formulation is tested on a 5 bus 320 kV meshed MTDC grid with 5-port MIDCCFC. A criterion is evolved to ensure the feasibility of the operating point obtained from the proposed formulation. The line current regulation range offered by MIDCCFC for line-12 in the test system is (30-3086) A. The impact of line-12 current variation on the system variables over the obtained range is investigated. The application of MIDCCFC for DC breaking is also investigated. The results are validated by performing steady state simulation of the test system in MATLAB/Simulink and real time simulation of the test system in Real Time Digital Simulator.

Real-Time Testing Optimal Power Flow in Smart-Transformer-Based Meshed Hybrid Microgrids: Design and Validation

The smart transformer (ST) is a multiport and multi-stage converter that allows for the formation of meshed hybrid microgrids (MHMs) by enabling AC-DC ports in medium and low voltage. This type of microgrid has advantages over the performance of conventional hybrid AC-DC microgrids (HMGs); however, the number of degrees of freedom of the ST increases the complexity of the energy management systems (EMSs), which require adequate and accurate modeling of the power flow of the converters and the MG to find the feasible solution of optimal power flow (OPF) problems in the MHM. An ST’s equivalent power flow model is proposed for formulating the MHM OPF problem and developing low-frequency equivalent models integrated with a decoupled hierarchical control architecture under a real-time simulation approach to the ST-based MHM. A simulation model of the MHM in the Simulink® environment of Matlab® 9.12 is developed and implemented under a digital real-time simulation (DRTS) approach on the OPAL-RT® platform. This model allows for determining the accuracy of the developed equivalent models, both low-frequency and power flow, and determining the MHM performance based on optimal day-ahead scheduling. Simulation test results demonstrated the ST equivalent model’s accuracy and the MHM’s accuracy for OPF problems with an optimal day-ahead scheduling horizon based on the model-in-the-loop (MIL) and DRTS approach.

Entirely Coupled Recurrent Neural Network-Based Backstepping Control for Global Stability of Power System Networks

In an interconnected power system network, global performance is affected by various unknown power system parameters subjected to system uncertainties. These unknown parameters in the control expression deteriorate the performance of the power system network. Therefore, these terms associated with the control expression must be estimated precisely. This paper proposes an adaptive backstepping scheme using an entirely coupled recurrent neural network (ECRNN) to estimate these control terms. Three continuous differentiable functions are used to design control input, virtual signals, and adaptive control laws to achieve global performance. The objective of ECRNN is to reduce the control complexity by estimating the associated nonlinear term in the control expression. It will facilitate the complex formulation of the controller and improve system performance. The robust functional estimation ability of ECRNN will make the system immune to uncertainties that may appear due to external disturbances. In ECRNN, feedback loops are added to each neuron layer to achieve additional estimation accuracy. The proposed adaptive law enhances the online weight update speed and accuracy. Verification of the proposed scheme is carried out in MATLAB/Simulink. It is also verified in the real-time digital simulator (RTDS) platform using the IEEE standard New England 39-bus, 10-machine power system model. <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Note to Practitioners</i> —This paper is motivated by the existing limitations in the global performance of a multimachine power system network due to uncertainty in the system parameters. Uncertainties in the power system network primarily appeared due to penetration of renewable power sources, load uncertainty, or occurrence of an uncertain fault in the network. As power system networks are complex nonlinear interconnected systems, these perturbations in the generator states may cause economic losses, load demand uncertainty, or electric scarcity. Thus, a control scheme is required to address the global performance of such networks. This article proposes uniform ultimate bounded stability of synchronous generators in a multimachine power system network with a robust ECRNN-based backstepping control design. The other available technique has not adequately addressed the global performance under uncertainties. The efficacy of the proposed scheme is verified in a real-time environment via a real-time digital simulator which may be a feasible solution for designing excitation control for the synchronous machine in an extensive industrial network.

Fault location in high-voltage direct-current grids based on panoramic voltage features and vision transformers

This paper presents a novel fault location method designed for high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) grids equipped with quick-action protections and circuit breakers. The method relies on a very short data window of single-ended voltage signals, which allows the acquisition of necessary measurements before the ultra-fast fault-isolation stage. Through fault analysis of the simulated four-terminal HVDC grid, it is observed that the fault distance induces a unique transient response in the voltage signal. However, due to the complex mathematical representation of loop components and the multiple fault factors involved, a data-driven strategy is adopted for fault distance estimation. Based on this strategy, four signal processing techniques, including Gramian angular field, recurrence plot, Markov transition field, and continuous wavelet transform, are used to extract panoramic voltage features. Additionally, four advanced lightweight variants of vision transformers (ViT), including MobileViT, EfficientFormer, Efficient-Model, and EdgeViT, are considered for constructing the regression model. The optimal combination of panoramic voltage features and regression models for configuring the locator is determined by statistical evaluation. The results of semi-physical experiments based on real-time digital simulators demonstrate that the proposed method, first, can accurately estimate the fault distance, second, possesses robustness against high transition resistance, low sampling frequency, and strong noise interference, and third, is practically feasible.

Robust Three-Stage Dynamic Mode Decomposition for Analysis of Power System Oscillations

A spatio-temporal method based on Robust Three-stage Dynamic Mode Decomposition (RTDMD) is proposed to improve the modal parameter estimation of synchrophasor data in the presence of noise, missing data and outliers. The proposed method is based on the PMU correlated spatio-temporal data to estimate missing information using an iterative singular value decomposition (SVD) combined with the adjustment of the reduced Koopman operator. Moreover, it is proposed to identify and correct outliers using an inherent statistical extension of the SVD-based Mahalanobis distance. As a result of the proposed enhancements, modal parameters such as damping and power system oscillation frequency are extracted as a byproduct of the RTDMD algorithm process. Data resulting from real-time digital simulators (RTDS) with self-clearing three-phase fault and Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) of Low-Frequency Oscillation (LFO) incidents at hydroelectric power plants are used to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed method over other well-established methods.