Reading Fluency Test Research Articles

Diet quality and academic achievement: a prospective study among primary school children

Poor diet quality may impair academic achievement in children, but such evidence is limited. Therefore, we investigated the associations of healthy diet in Grade 1 assessed by Mediterranean Diet Score (MDS), Baltic Sea Diet Score (BSDS), and Finnish Children Healthy Eating Index (FCHEI) with academic achievement in Grades 1-3 in children. The participants were 161 Finnish children who were 6-8years old in Grade 1 and attended in a large ongoing physical activity and dietary intervention study. Dietary factors were assessed using 4-day food records, and MDS, BSDS, and FCHEI were calculated. Academic achievement was assessed by reading fluency, reading comprehension, and arithmetic skill tests. The data were analyzed using linear regression analysis and analysis of covariance adjusted for age, sex, parental education, household income, body fat percentage, physical activity, the PANIC Study group, and total energy intake. MDS was positively associated with reading comprehension in Grade 3 (standardized regression coefficient β=0.167, P=0.032). BSDS was positively associated with reading fluency in Grades 2-3 and reading comprehension in Grades 1-3 (β=0.161-0.274, P<0.05). FCHEI was positively related to reading fluency in Grades 1-2 and reading comprehension in Grades 1-3 (β=0.190-0.344, P<0.05). Children in the highest third of BSDS and FCHEI had better reading fluency and reading comprehension in Grades 1-3 than children in the lowest third (P<0.05). None of the diet scores was associated with arithmetic skills. Healthier diet assessed by BSDS or FCHEI in Grade 1 was associated with better reading skills, but not with arithmetic skills, among children in Grades 1-3. Long-term intervention studies are needed to investigate the effects of improvements in diet quality on academic achievement among children. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01803776.

Neurofeedback as an Intervention to Improve Reading Achievement in Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Inattentive Subtype

Author(s): La Marca, Jeffry P; O'Connor, Rollanda E | Abstract: Research consistently demonstrates that attention deficits have a deleterious effect on academic achievement. Impairments in attention, and not hyperactivity/impulsivity, are associated with learning difficulties and academic problems in students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). To date, most studies have focused on symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity, with little research being conducted on interventions for students with ADHD, inattentive subtype. This study examines the use of neurofeedback as an intervention to improve reading achievement in a public school setting. A multiple-baseline-across-participants single-case model was used to assess five fourth-grade students who received 40 daily sessions of neurofeedback. Following the intervention, improvements were observed on objective measures of attention: a continuous performance test (Integrated Visual and Auditory Continuous Performance Test [IVA+Plus]) and/or a testof shifting attention (CNS Vital Signs, Shifting Attention Test [CNS-VS, SAT]). Results on tests of reading fluency revealed little change, although participants demonstrated gains on a measure of reading comprehension (Gray Oral Reading Tests–Fifth Edition [GORT-5]). Results suggest that neurofeedback helped participants to become more accurately engaged with the text with more focused attention to content. Thus, neurofeedback may be a viable option to assist children with attention deficits for improving both attention and reading achievement.

English proficiency and acculturation among Chinese immigrant youth in Canada: a reciprocal relationship

ABSTRACTThe main focus of this study was to refine our understanding of the link between English proficiency and mainstream acculturation in adolescent Chinese immigrants. The sample consisted of 112 adolescents in grades 7–12 living in urban areas in southern Ontario, Canada. English proficiency was assessed individually using standardised tests of vocabulary knowledge, reading comprehension, and reading fluency. Mainstream acculturation was measured by the Vancouver Index of Acculturation. The results of structural equation modelling support a reciprocal relationship between English proficiency and mainstream acculturation after controlling for age, length of residence in Canada, and nonverbal reasoning. The results suggest that learning English may be one important variable affecting motivation for cultural immersion in immigrant youth.

Development of a Language Learners’ Reading Fluency Test with regard to Pre/Post Test Design

To increase the benefit of a pre/post test design, the validity and reliability of the research should be carefully considered, since a pre/post test design require tests to be conducted multiple times. The current study developed a reading fluency test with a pre/post test design that aimed to measure the effect of the intervention on English learners. The developed reading fluency test was piloted twice and subsequently revised according to the pilot test results. According to the results of the pilot studies, the current study a) increased the test validity by measuring not only reading rate but also comprehension and b) strengthened the test reliability by using different reading texts that took into consideration the comparability of the readability of the text used across the pre and post tests.

Silent reading fluency: Implications for the assessment of adults with developmental dyslexia

Introduction: Understanding silent reading fluency (SRF) is of a paramount importance, given that silent reading is the principal manner of reading for capable readers. But the assessment of SRF is not commonly useful for identifying students with reading difficulties and monitoring their progress. The paper presents the SRF scores of adults with dyslexia compared to SRF scores of skilled readers and discusses the power of the SRF measure in identifying adults with specific learning disorders with impairment in reading. Method: Participants recruited were 68 dyslexic and age-matched skilled adult readers (18–48 years old). Among them, 24 were skilled readers with a university degree (GRS), 22 were skilled readers with a high school diploma (DSR), and 22 participants had been diagnosed with dyslexia (DR). We used a standardized oral reading fluency (ORF) test and an original SRF task to measure the reading fluency. Results: All participants increased their reading fluency in silent mode (p < .001). Nonetheless, the average speed of the oral reading was 7.19 syllables per second (syl/s) for the GSR group, 7.11 syl/s for the DSR group, and 4.95 syl/s for the DR group. The average speed of the silent reading was 11.62 syl/s and 10.75 syl/s for GSR and DSR, respectively, and 6.15 syl/s for DR. The reading fluency differential (Δf) between ORF and SRF was significantly different among the dyslexic participants and the other two groups. Conclusions: Our results strongly suggest that dyslexic readers are less capable of significantly improve their reading speed when they read silently. Thus SRF could be considered a suitable parameter for identifying older students and adults with impairment in reading. A broader investigation of the issues surrounding silent reading is needed.

Correlation of Magnocellular Function with Measurements of Reading in Children

Purpose: Children with reading disability frequently exhibit reduced sensitivity to motion, as assessed by coherent motion thresholds (CMT) and critical flicker frequency (CFF). A retrospective analysis was conducted to evaluate whether there was a correlation between reading fluency as measured by the Test of Silent Word Reading Fluency (TOSWRF), reading rate (as measured with the Visagraph II Eye Movement System), and pseudoword decoding (as measured with the pseudoword decoding subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Achievement Test, WIAT-II), and these two visual motion sensitivity tests. Methods: 68 children between the ages of 7-16 years presented to the principal investigator’s optometric practice for a vision therapy evaluation between June 1st 2010 and March 31st 2011. As part of the standard protocol for vision therapy evaluations, they were assessed using the CMT, CFF, TOSWRF, WIAT-II (pseudoword decoding subtest), and Visagraph II. The patients were divided into reading ability groups based on the published recommendations from the TOSWRF manual. Individuals at the 25% or below level were labeled as poor fluency, individuals in the 26th to 74th% level were labeled average fluency, and those in the 75% or higher level were labeled as good fluency. Results: Pearson correlations were computed between the dependent variables revealing several important relationships: Fluency (TOSWRF) correlated significantly with all of the dependent measures selected for study. Of these measures, the WIAT-II subtest score correlated the most strongly at a moderate level (r = +0.569). Reading rate (Visagraph II) was the next strongest correlate of fluency, with changes in rate accounting for 26.5% of the variance in fluency. The variables of CMT and CFF were combined with rate in two follow-up, logistic regressions to determine whether their inclusion added to the classification accuracy of rate. Both variables improved the specificity of rate, which has a high likelihood of false positives. CMT maintained the sensitivity of rate while boosting specificity, whereas CFF caused a decline in the sensitivity of rate while greatly improving specificity. Reading rate with CFF and with CMT both had an overall accurate prediction of fluency of 84%. Conclusions: Silent word reading fluency correlated with CMT, CFF, reading rate, and WIAT-2. Combining reading rate with a motion sensitivity test (either CMT or CFF) maintained good sensitivity, while greatly improving specificity. Clinicians should consider adding a motion sensitivity test to the Visagraph II reading rate assessment when evaluating school-age children who may be at risk for reading fluency deficits.

The effects of children’s reading skills and interest on teacher perceptions of children’s skills and individualized support

This study examined the effects of children’s reading skills and interest in reading-related tasks on teacher perceptions of children’s literacy skills (reading and spelling) and the respective individualized support for children during the first two years of formal schooling. The participants were 334 children and their classroom teachers. Identical measures were administered at three time points (at the beginning of Grade 1 and at the end of Grades 1 and 2). Children’s reading skills were assessed with the word reading fluency test, and their interest in reading was assessed with self-reports. Also, teachers evaluated each child’s level of reading and spelling skills and reported the level of individual literacy support they provided. The results showed that children’s poor skills in reading at the beginning of Grade 1 were related to both teacher perceptions of children’s skills as being poor and to increased support at the end of Grade 1. In turn, teacher perceptions of children’s skills as being poor at the end of Grade 1 were related to more support at the end of Grade 2. Moreover, children’s reading skills at the beginning of school had an indirect effect via teacher perceptions at the end of Grade 1 on teacher support in Grade 2. The findings underscore the importance of examining the role of teacher perceptions in providing individualized support during literacy activities.

Oral Reading Fluency Assessments in School-Age Children who Stutter

Oral reading rate is commonly used to assess reading fluency. It provides a measure of automaticity. It is also an indicator of potential reading ability and a strong predictor of academic success. However, there are some concerns that children who stutter may not be receiving necessary accommodations during reading tests that have reading rate as an integral component of the assessment. The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association(ASHA) Ad Hoc Committee on Reading Fluency for School-Age Children Who Stutter fielded a survey to investigate the following two questions:(A) What tests are being administered to measure academic benchmarks in oral reading fluency across the United States?(B) What accommodations are being implemented during the administration of oral reading fluency tests to account for problems due to stuttering (e.g., blocks, repetitions, prolongations, slower-than-normal speech rate, speech breakdowns from reading/speaking under pressure, hesitations)?An email invitation to participate in the survey was sent to ASHA-certified speech-language pathologists residing in the United States and employed on a full- or part-time basis. The Ad Hoc committee reviewed the quantitative and qualitative results of the survey to determine current practices of reading assessment in schools, appropriateness of testing tools, and barriers to adequate testing. An emerging theme about current status is that the process for testing oral reading fluency in children who stutter is not standardized. The process is variable within and across school districts and decisions regarding test accommodations are variable and are made on a case-by-case basis. Speech-language pathologists indicated that school professionals need more information about how to accurately measure reading fluency in children who stutter, and that specific barriers prevent the information from being disseminated.This poster will showcase the oral reading fluency survey outcomes, including potential clinical implications of reading fluency testing for school-age children who stutter.

DO INTERVENTION-EMBEDDED ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES SUCCESSFULLY MEASURE STUDENT GROWTH IN READING?

Effective intervention delivery requires ongoing assessment to determine whether students are learning at the desired rate. Intervention programs with embedded assessment procedures (i.e., assessment that occurs naturally during the process of delivering intervention) can potentially enhance instructional decisions. However, there is almost no psychometric research on this type of assessment procedure. This study was designed to examine the psychometric characteristics of three types of progress measures that are embedded within a commonly used reading intervention program. Results indicated that generalized gains across different oral reading fluency passages predict concurrent gains on common and comprehensive tests of reading fluency, and that immediate instructional gains measured during instruction were significantly different from zero and thus sensitive to intervention effects. Overall findings suggest that at least some embedded assessment procedures demonstrate predictive validity and that these types of procedures have the potential to assist educators with data-driven instructional decisions about students’ responsiveness to intervention.

Beyond Vocabulary: Exploring Cross-Disciplinary Academic-Language Proficiency and Its Association With Reading Comprehension

Despite a longstanding awareness of academic language as a pedagogically relevant research area, the construct of academic language proficiency, understood as a more comprehensive set of skills than just academic vocabulary, has remained vaguely specified. In this study, we explore a more inclusive operationalization of an academic language proficiency construct, Core Academic Language Skills (CALS). CALS refers to a constellation of high-utility language skills hypothesized to support reading comprehension across school content areas. Using the CALS-I, a theoretically grounded and psychometrically robust innovative instrument, we first examined the variability in students' CALS by grade, English proficiency designation, and socioeconomic status (SES). Then, we examined the contribution of CALS to reading comprehension using academic vocabulary knowledge, word reading fluency, and socio- demographic factors as covariates. A linguistically and socioeconomically diverse cross- sectional sample of 218 students (grades 4-6) participated in four assessments: the CALS-I, a standardized reading comprehension assessment (GMRT), an academic vocabulary test (VAT), and a word reading fluency test (TOSWRF). GLM analysis of variance revealed that CALS differed significantly by grade, English proficiency designation, and SES, with students in higher grades, English proficient students, and those from higher SES backgrounds displaying higher scores, on average. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses identified CALS as an independent predictor of reading comprehension, even after controlling for academic vocabulary knowledge, word reading fluency, and socio-demographic factors. By specifying a set of language skills associated with reading comprehension, this study advances our understanding of school- relevant language skills, making them more visible for researchers and educators. ACADEMIC LANGUAGE & READING COMPREHENSION 3 Beyond vocabulary: Exploring cross-disciplinary academic language proficiency and its association with reading comprehension

Development of a Language Learners’ Reading Fluency Test with regard to Pre/Post Test Design

Development of a Language Learners’ Reading Fluency Test with regard to Pre/Post Test Design

Oral Reading Fluency as a Predictor of Silent Reading Fluency at Secondary and Postsecondary Levels

This research investigated oral reading fluency as a predictor of silent reading fluency at the secondary and postsecondary levels. Several measures were used, including the Gray Oral Reading Test, the Test of Silent Word Reading Fluency, the Test of Silent Contextual Reading Fluency, and the Reading Observation Scale. A total of 223 students participated in the research, 63.2% at the postsecondary and 36.8% at the high school level. Among them, 17.5% had reading disabilities. We sought to identify performance-level differences between the two groups, students with and without reading disabilities; specifically, silent reading fluency test results of students with reading disabilities vs. students without reading disabilities and the oral reading fluency as a predictor of silent reading fluency proficiency levels. An independent-samples t test, correlations, and hierarchical regression analyses were employed. The results indicated that the relationships between oral reading fluency and silent reading fluency were statistically significant.

Quick: Talk Fast &amp; Don’t Stutter!

Quick: Talk Fast &amp; Don’t Stutter!

Phonemic Awareness Is a More Important Predictor of Orthographic Processing Than Rapid Serial Naming: Evidence From Russian

We studied the relationship between rapid serial naming (RSN) and orthographic processing in Russian, an asymmetrically transparent orthography. Ninety-six students (M age = 13.73) completed tests of word and pseudoword reading fluency, spelling, orthographic choice, phonological choice, phoneme awareness (PA), and RSN. PA was a better predictor of orthographic skills and pseudoword reading accuracy than RSN, which accounted for more variance in word and pseudoword reading fluency. Controlling for pseudoword reading fluency washed out RSN’s contribution to word reading fluency. These results extend previous findings questioning the role of RSN as an index of orthographic processing skills and support the idea that RSN taps into automaticity/efficiency of processing print-sound mappings.

A Randomized Study of a Literacy-Integrated Science Intervention for Low-Socio-economic Status Middle School Students: Findings from first-year implementation

This paper presents the findings from a randomized control trial study of reading/literacy-integrated science inquiry intervention after 1 year of implementation and the treatment effect on 5th-grade low-socio-economic African-American and Hispanic students’ achievement in science and English reading. A total of 94 treatment students and 194 comparison students from four randomized intermediate schools participated in the current project. The intervention consisted of ongoing professional development and specific instructional science lessons with inquiry-based learning, direct and explicit vocabulary instruction, and integration of reading and writing. Results suggested that (a) there was a significantly positive treatment effect as reflected in students' higher performance in district-wide curriculum-based tests of science and reading and standardized tests of science, reading, and English reading fluency; (b) males and females did not differ significantly from participating in science inquiry instruction; (c) African-American students had lower chance of sufficiently mastering the science concepts and achieving above the state standards when compared with Hispanic students across gender and condition, and (d) below-poverty African-American females are the most vulnerable group in science learning. Our study confirmed that even a modest amount of literacy integration in inquiry-based science instruction can promote students' science and reading achievement. Therefore, we call for more experimental research that focus on the quality of literacy-integrated science instruction from which middle grade students, particularly low-socio-economic status students, can benefit.

Reaction Time Variability Associated with Reading Skills in Poor Readers with ADHD

Linkages between neuropsychological functioning (i.e., response inhibition, processing speed, reaction time variability) and word reading have been documented among children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and children with Reading Disorders. However, associations between neuropsychological functioning and other aspects of reading (i.e., fluency, comprehension) have not been well-documented among children with comorbid ADHD and Reading Disorder. Children with ADHD and poor word reading (i.e., ≤25th percentile) completed a stop signal task (SST) and tests of word reading, reading fluency, and reading comprehension. Multivariate multiple regression was conducted predicting the reading skills from SST variables [i.e., mean reaction time (MRT), reaction time standard deviation (SDRT), and stop signal reaction time (SSRT)]. SDRT predicted word reading, reading fluency, and reading comprehension. MRT and SSRT were not associated with any reading skill. After including word reading in models predicting reading fluency and reading comprehension, the effects of SDRT were minimized. Reaction time variability (i.e., SDRT) reflects impairments in information processing and failure to maintain executive control. The pattern of results from this study suggest SDRT exerts its effects on reading fluency and reading comprehension through its effect on word reading (i.e., decoding) and that this relation may be related to observed deficits in higher-level elements of reading.

Australian comparison data for the Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE)

This paper reports provisional Australian comparison data and scoring instructions for the Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE). The TOWRE is a popular reading fluency test used in reading research, classroom assessment and clinical practice. Approximate ‘norms’ were obtained from children attending four primary schools in New South Wales. Results suggested that the US norms for the TOWRE may overestimate the reading level of Australian children in lower grades and that the performance on the two parallel forms (A and B) of the subtests (Sight Word Efficiency and Phonemic Decoding Efficiency) of the TOWRE did not differ from each other. While no performance differences were found between boys and girls overall, it was noted that the youngest boys outperformed the youngest girls on Form A of the Sight Word Efficiency subtest, and the youngest girls outperformed the youngest boys on Form B of the Sight Word Efficiency subtest. Limitations of the current study are discussed and a brief reference is made to a new (2012) edition of TOWRE (TOWRE-2).

A case study of bi-literacy development among children enrolled in an Italian–English dual language program in Southern California

This study examines bi-literacy development among 60 children enrolled in an Italian–English dual language (DL) program in Southern California. Using a variety of measures including (1) oral reading fluency (ORF), (2) accuracy scores, and (3) standardized test for the assessment of reading (STAR) test's estimates of reading ability for English, the study investigates how Italian and English literacy skills emerged and developed among first-, second-, and third- graders – and among English speakers and learners – educated via Italian immersion. The study also examines the extent to which ORF was correlated, and therefore transferred, between languages. The results indicate that reading fluency emerged first in Italian for all students. However, in a relatively short period of time, it became comparable across languages and even higher in English for English-speaking students. Correlations between Italian and English reading fluency scores were statistically significant and moderately high. This finding suggests that Italian decoding skills transferred to English, possibly helping children develop English literacy while primarily instructed in Italian. STAR test results further indicate that after a brief, initial lag in English reading skills, students caught up to and eventually read increasingly better than grade level in English. This finding confirms the possible long-term benefits of DL instruction on English reading development.

Infant ERPs separate children at risk of dyslexia who become good readers from those who become poor readers

Dyslexia is heritable and associated with phonological processing deficits that can be reflected in the event-related potentials (ERPs). Here, we recorded ERPs from 2-month-old infants at risk of dyslexia and from a control group to investigate whether their auditory system processes /bAk/ and /dAk/ changes differently. The speech sounds were presented in an oddball paradigm. The children were followed longitudinally and performed a word reading fluency test in second grade. The infant ERPs were subsequently analyzed according to high or low reading fluency in order to find a neurophysiological precursor of poor reading fluency. The results show that the fluent reading children (from both the at-risk and the control group) processed the speech sound changes differentially in infancy as indicated by a mismatch response (MMR). In the control group the MMR was frontally positive and in the fluent at-risk group the MMR was parietally positive. The non-fluent at-risk group did not show an MMR. We conclude that at-risk children who became fluent readers were better at speech processing in infancy than those who became non-fluent readers. This indicates a very early speech processing deficit in the group of later non-fluent readers.

The Relationship between Curriculum-based Measures in Oral Reading Fluency and High-Stakes Tests for Seventh Grade Students

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between oral reading fluency and performance on a statewide reading achievement test for middle grades students. Participants in this study were 75 seventh grade students. One month before the students were administered the state test, each student read three probes from their current basal reader to determine an oral reading fluency rate. The Ohio Grade 7 Reading Test scores were correlated with oral reading fluency rates to determine the extent of the relationship between the results. Results support the use of oral reading fluency assessment as a valid tool for identifying students at risk of not passing the statewide reading achievement test.