Reading Failure Research Articles

A Tiered Intervention Model for Early Vocabulary Instruction: The Effects of Tiered Instruction for Young Students At Risk for Reading Disability

Vocabulary knowledge at school entry is a robust predictor of later reading achievement. Many children begin formal reading instruction at a significant disadvantage due to low levels of vocabulary. Until recently, relatively few research studies examined the efficacy of vocabulary interventions for children in the early primary grades (e.g., before fourth grade), and even fewer addressed vocabulary intervention for students at increased risk for reading failure. In more recent work, researchers have begun to explore ways in which to diminish the “meaningful differences” in language achievement noted among children as they enter formal schooling. This article provides a review of a particularly effective model of vocabulary intervention based on shared storybook reading and situates this model in a context of tiered intervention, an emerging model of instructional design in the field of special education. In addition, we describe a quasi‐experimental posttest‐only study that examines the feasibility and effectiveness of the model for first‐grade students. Participants were 224 first‐grade students of whom 98 were identified as at risk for reading disability based on low levels of vocabulary. Results of a multivariate analysis of variance revealed significant differences on measures of target vocabulary knowledge at the receptive and context level, suggesting that students at risk for reading failure benefit significantly from a second tier of vocabulary instruction. Implications for classroom practice as well as future research are provided.

Assessing Component Language Deficits in the Early Detection of Reading Difficulty Risk

This article focuses on some of the linguistic components that underlie letter-sound decoding skills and reading comprehension: specifically phonology, morphology, and syntax. Many children who have reading difficulties had language deficits that were detectable before they began reading. Early identification of language difficulties will therefore help identify children at risk of reading failure. Using a developmental psycholinguistic framework, the authors provide a model of how syntax, morphology, and phonology break down in children with language impairments. The article reports on a screening test of these language abilities for preschool or young school-aged children that identifies those at risk for literacy problems and in need of further assessment.

Validation of a Supplemental Reading Intervention for First-Grade Children

This experimental study was designed to validate a short-term supplemental reading intervention for at-risk first-grade children. Although substantial research on long-term supplemental reading interventions exists, less is known about short-term interventions. Thirty first-grade children were randomly assigned to intervention or control conditions. Students in the intervention received 16 hours of instruction. Analyses of pre- and posttest data and growth measures suggest that short-term supplemental reading intervention had a significant effect on children’s reading skills; however, effects were not consistent across measures. Parent and teacher ratings moderated significant effects. Findings support the validity of a brief intervention for students at risk for reading failure that may inform Tier 2 interventions within a Response to Intervention framework.

Reducing Reading Failure for Kindergarten Urban Students

Six instructional assistants taught the Early Reading Intervention (ERI) curriculum to 38 at-risk kindergarten students, and 32 nonrisk students served as comparisons. Student risk was determined based on performance on the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills subtests of Nonsense Word Fluency, Letter Naming Fluency, and Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF). The Word Attack (WA) and Letter-Word Identification (LWID) subtests of the Woodcock–Johnson III Tests of Achievement were used to confirm risk status and also as pre- and posttest measures. Treatment students received between 6.85 and 13.70 hr of instruction, with varying degrees of treatment quality. Multiple linear regression was used to analyze the amount of variance in gain scores that could be explained by participation in ERI, treatment quality, and treatment duration. Results showed WA and LWID gains with large effect sizes for treatment students. Findings for treatment quality and duration were mixed, without clear indications of their effects on gain scores.

Enhancing the Vocabulary Knowledge of First-Grade Children With Supplemental Booster Instruction

This study examined the effects of instructional intensity on the acquisition of storybook vocabulary in first graders who were at risk of early reading failure. It also measured whether the intervention was effective for closing the vocabulary knowledge gap between students who were at risk and their average-achieving peers. A total of 66 students participated in the study, 44 identified as at risk and 22 as average-achieving peers. Students identified as at risk were randomly assigned to either a booster group, where they received explicit instruction of selected storybook vocabulary, or a no booster group, where they received vocabulary instruction in the context of read alouds through an experimental Read Aloud curriculum. A repeated measures design was employed to compare the effects of the intervention. Results indicate that students in the booster group significantly outperformed the students in the no booster and average-achieving peers groups on storybook vocabulary measures.

Evidence‐based early reading practices within a Response to Intervention system

AbstractMany students who experience reading failure are inappropriately placed in special education. A promising response to reducing reading failure and the overidentification of students for special education is Response to Intervention (RTI), a comprehensive early detection and prevention system that allows teachers to identify and support struggling readers early, before they fail. A key component of RTI is the implementation of evidence‐based reading practices within a multitiered framework. School psychologists are increasingly being asked to lead or be members of RTI building teams. As such, they can play an important role in assuring that evidence‐based practices in reading are implemented with integrity. The purpose of this article is to provide a framework for judging the extent to which early reading instruction within a multitier RTI system is evidence based. Key evidence‐based practices related to the content, design, and delivery of early reading instruction are described. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Impact of the Script in a Supplemental Reading Program on Instructional Opportunities for Student Practice of Specified Skills

Many educators are reluctant to use scripted instruction, reporting that scripts are mechanical in nature and only appropriate for low-level skills. This study sought to investigate the impact of a supplemental program’s script on the rate of on-task and off-task instructional opportunities offered by the instructor for students to practice the specific skills targeted in lesson exercises. Using a multiple-baseline across-participants design, four paraeducators delivered daily instruction, first in a nonscripted version of an explicit supplemental program and then in the scripted version of the same program, to 12 first-grade students identified at risk for reading failure. Upon introduction of the script, the rate of on-task instructional opportunities for student practice was substantially higher, and the rate of off-task instructional opportunities diminished. Both paraeducators and student participants preferred the scripted instruction.

Why is Everyone Talking about Adolescent Literacy?

For years, there was a widespread assumption that reading instruction was finished by the end of 3rd grade. The successful 3rd-grade reader was assumed to be prepared for content-area reading in later elementary and secondary grades. But even students who read well by the end of 3rd grade can struggle with comprehension in later grades. We refer to the massive investment in primary grades instruction while neglecting later development as the inoculation fallacy--the fallacy that an early vaccination of reading instruction protects permanently against reading failure. The need for instruction does not end with the 3rd grade, or even in high school. Although National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) scores have increased for 4th graders, they have not improved at 8th or 12th grade (NAEP 2007). Although U.S. children perform fairly well in international comparisons at 4th grade, their ranking falls precipitously by 10th grade (PISA 2003). Although 85% of U.S. residents aged 25 or over have high school diplomas (Stoops 2004), colleges must offer remedial reading and writing courses for an alarmingly high percentage of students, suggesting that a high school diploma doesn't guarantee college-level skills. All of these problems have fueled the demand for programs, which are aimed at students from 4th grade through at least the first year of postsecondary education. This increased demand for adolescent demonstrates the manifest failure of the inoculation model in education. Instruction in Literacy and Its Uses Turning around failing middle and high schools requires emphasizing in instruction, interventions, and professional development. Successful whole-school improvement efforts have established clear goals for students' general skills and have stressed reading and writing in all subjects both to learn the important concepts in the subject and to strengthen skills. To accomplish this, schools must enable teachers to work with each other and with such professionals as coaches and professional development providers (Carnegie Council on Advancing Adolescent Literacy 2010). Schools may need to rethink such current structures as departmental divisions and class schedules in order to facilitate these changes. Effective practices incorporate knowledge of how adolescents learn to read, write, and use to learn, and how students' cultural, social, psychological, and linguistic development might shape how, why, and when they read and write. Emphasizing literacy does not mean instruction, intervention, or professional development should deflect attention from subject-area learning. However, deep learning in the subject areas requires complex skills. Students must learn to use and language as tools for comprehending and representing subject-area concepts. Designing instruction for adolescents has three components: * Continued development of general language and skills; * Incorporating into content-area instruction; and * Supporting struggling readers. The first of these, usually thought of as the task of the English teacher, encompasses teaching grammar, vocabulary, writing, and reading comprehension. Because these skills build on oral language, they require particular attention in schools serving language minority and low-income students (RAND Reading Study Group 2002). When English teachers move beyond simply engaging students in literature or in writing, they typically focus on such comprehension strategies as previewing, predicting, monitoring, questioning, and summarizing. Though endorsed as a practice of proven effectiveness (National Reading Panel 2000), teachers can overdo this type of instruction (McKeown, Beck, and Blake 2009). Strategies are actions taken consciously to address a problem or achieve a goal. …

Kids Write and Create

Kids Write and Create

Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children

Learning to associate auditory information of speech sounds with visual information of letters is a first and critical step for becoming a skilled reader in alphabetic languages. Nevertheless, it remains largely unknown which brain areas subserve the learning and automation of such associations. Here, we employ functional magnetic resonance imaging to study letter-speech sound integration in children with and without developmental dyslexia. The results demonstrate that dyslexic children show reduced neural integration of letters and speech sounds in the planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and the superior temporal sulcus. While cortical responses to speech sounds in fluent readers were modulated by letter-speech sound congruency with strong suppression effects for incongruent letters, no such modulation was observed in the dyslexic readers. Whole-brain analyses of unisensory visual and auditory group differences additionally revealed reduced unisensory responses to letters in the fusiform gyrus in dyslexic children, as well as reduced activity for processing speech sounds in the anterior superior temporal gyrus, planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and superior temporal sulcus. Importantly, the neural integration of letters and speech sounds in the planum temporale/Heschl sulcus and the neural response to letters in the fusiform gyrus explained almost 40% of the variance in individual reading performance. These findings indicate that an interrelated network of visual, auditory and heteromodal brain areas contributes to the skilled use of letter-speech sound associations necessary for learning to read. By extending similar findings in adults, the data furthermore argue against the notion that reduced neural integration of letters and speech sounds in dyslexia reflect the consequence of a lifetime of reading struggle. Instead, they support the view that letter-speech sound integration is an emergent property of learning to read that develops inadequately in dyslexic readers, presumably as a result of a deviant interactive specialization of neural systems for processing auditory and visual linguistic inputs.

Fast and accurate estimation of SRAM read and hold failure probability using critical point sampling

Owing to increase in parametric variations with technology scaling, accurate estimation of bit-cell failure probability in nano-scale static random access memory (SRAM) has become an extremely challenging task. In this study, the authors propose a method to detect the SRAM bit-cell failure, named ‘critical point sampling’. Using this technique, read and hold failure probability of an SRAM bit-cell can be efficiently estimated in a simulation-based way. Simulation results show that our estimation method provides high accuracy, while being ∼50× faster in computational speed compared to transient Monte-Carlo simulation. The method can be applied to optimise SRAM design for better yield and contributes significantly in reducing the overall design time.

Using Peer Coaches to Build Oral Reading Fluency

Fluent oral reading is essential for success in elementary school. In this study, we investigated the effectiveness of enhanced reading fluency instruction for struggling readers. The intervention was provided to small groups of students at risk for reading difficulties. Students were assessed on key early literacy skills. Second-grade students who were at risk for reading failure and who received supplemental intervention scored higher on measures of fluency than students who received only typical classroom instruction; the effects of enhanced fluency instruction were evident across different dosages for many children at risk for reading failure. In addition, statistically significant improvements and relationships were evident for oral reading fluency and comprehension. We discuss guidelines for developing and using the intervention in other classrooms.

Websites of note

Websites of note

How Can We Improve the Accuracy of Screening Instruments?

Screening for early reading problems is a critical step in early intervention and prevention of later reading difficulties. Evaluative frameworks for determining the utility of a screening process are presented in the literature but have not been applied to many screening measures currently in use in numerous schools across the nation. In this study, the accuracy of several Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) subtests in predicting which students were at risk for reading failure in first grade was examined in a sample of 12,055 students in Florida. Findings indicate that the DIBELS Nonsense Word Fluency, Initial Sound Fluency, and Phoneme Segmentation Fluency measures show poor diagnostic utility in predicting end of Grade 1 reading performance. DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency in fall of Grade 1 had higher classification accuracy than other DIBELS measures, but when compared to the classification accuracy obtained by assuming that no student had a disability, suggests the need to reevaluate the use of classification accuracy as a way to evaluate screening measures without discussion of base rates. Additionally, when cut scores on the screening tools were set to capture 90 percent of all students at risk for reading problems, a high number of false positives were identified. Finally, different cut scores were needed for different subgroups, such as English Language Learners. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

The Development of Orthographic Knowledge in Prelingually Deaf Individuals: New Insight from Arab Readers

The present study was designed to further clarify whether impoverished phonological skills of prelingually deaf readers undermine their ability to process written words. The word reading skills of forty students with prelingual deafness recruited from two levels of education (primary school, mid/high school) and a chronologically age-matched hearing control group—all of them reading Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) in a diglossic context—were examined with a research paradigm that required the categorization of written real words and paralleling pseudo-homophones. In general, findings suggest that despite severely impaired phonological decoding skills, prelingually deaf MSA readers eventually succeed to develop word reading skills that sustain word recognition with hearing-comparable efficiency. Linguistic representations underlying these skills seem to be of a nonphonological, most likely orthographic nature. Findings are discussed with reference to the validity of reading theories that assign a central role to phonology in the explanation of reading failure in individuals with prelingual deafness.

Predicting early reading skills from pre-reading measures of dorsal stream functioning

It is well documented that good reading skills may be dependent upon adequate dorsal stream processing. However, the degree to which dorsal stream deficits play a causal role in reading failure has not been established. This study used coherent motion and visual frequency doubling to examine whether dorsal stream sensitivity measured before the commencement of formal reading instruction can predict emerging literacy skills in Grade 1. We demonstrate that over age, IQ and Kindergarten Letter knowledge, pre-reading measures of dorsal stream functioning, as assessed by frequency doubling sensitivity, could predict early literacy skills. These findings suggest that the relationship between dorsal stream functioning and poor reading skills exists before children learn to read, strengthening the claim that dorsal stream deficits may play a contributing role in reading failure.

Les troubles psychiatriques et psychocognitifs associés à la dyslexie de développement : un enjeu clinique et scientifique

Dyslexia is a complex neurodevelopemental disorder that affects 5 to 10% of school-age children. This condition consists in a specific learning disability with a neurological origin. These learning difficulties are unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of efficient classroom instruction. A range of neurobiological investigations suggests that disruption of the parieto-temporo-occipital systems underlies a failure of skilled reading to develop. The observation that dyslexia is both a familial and heritable problem was made early on and was confirmed by twin studies. They also suggested that both genetic and environmental factors are involved. Several loci have been implicated in dyslexia, notably on chromosomes 2, 3, 6, 15 and 18 and some candidate genes have been proposed, but no functional mutation has yet been identified. Dyslexia seldom appears isolated and dyslexic people are very likely to present other kinds of learning disabilities or psychiatric disorders. Specific language impairment, often with a mild outcome, is the most frequently associated with dyslexia. Indeed, late language development is often reported by dyslexic patients and also occurs more frequently among their siblings. Genetic linkage studies suggest some common genetic factor underlying this comorbidity. Dyscalculia is associated with dyslexia in 25% of cases, but most people with dyscalculia do not have any sign of dyslexia. The question of whether dyscalculia associated with dyslexia and dyscalculia itself rely on the same cognitive impairment is still controversial. Impaired motor development is also a common feature that affects nearly 50% of dyslexics and dyslexia is frequent among dyspraxic patients. This association raises the discussion on the role of motor impairment in dyslexia's physiopathology and the cerebellar theory of dyslexia. Beyond its link with other learning disorders, the study of dyslexia's comorbidity highlights psychopathological issues. ADHD is the most frequent psychiatric disorder associated with dyslexia. Underpinnings of this link between the two disorders seem to rely on common cognitive and genetic factors. Some authors have proposed a candidate gene ADRA2A to determine the condition including ADHD and dyslexia. In addition, dyslexics are exposed to a higher risk of anxiodepressive and behavioural disorders. Dyslexic children experience three times more behavioural disorders and one third of children with behavioural problems turn out to be affected by dyslexia. The literature study reveals inconsistent findings about depressed mood among dyslexics, but evidence of a persistent increase in the rate of anxiety disorders. The authors put forward the impact of environmental factors to explain these psychiatric comorbidities. This review emphasizes dyslexia's comorbidities because they represent an important issue, both from a scientific and clinical point of view. Indeed, for clinicians, children showing multiple learning disabilities have specific reeducation and educational needs and dyslexics have a higher risk of emotional and behavioural disorders. On the other hand, dyslexia's comorbidity study provides a powerful method for researchers to investigate the still unknown physiopathology of dyslexia.

Early Predictors of Reading in Three Groups of Native Spanish Speakers: Spaniards, Gypsies, and Latin Americans

The main purpose of the study reported here was to examine the early linguistic predictors of reading (e.g., Knowledge About Print, Listening Comprehension, Receptive Vocabulary, Rapid Naming of Objects and Letters, and Phonological Awareness), for a sample of 77 Spaniards, 48 Latinos, and 30 Gypsies kindergartens (mean age = 5 years 9 months) living in Spain. The relative contribution of ethnic background, neighbourhood socioeconomic status (SES), age, and gender was assessed. Findings revealed that ethnic background, neighborhood SES, and age differentially predicted children's pre-literacy skills. The implications of these results for understanding the role played by these demographic and socio-cultural variables in alphabetic literacy acquisition are discussed. The second purpose of this study was to add to the growing literature on the nature of reading challenges in children who are learning to read a transparent orthography-Spanish. Cross-linguistic research between different subtypes of readers will add to understand the impact of language characteristics in reading acquisition. Finally, the present study suggested that early assessment of pre-literacy skills can be a highly effective way to determine the instructional needs of students who are at risk for reading failure before formal reading instruction begins.

Emergent Literacy Intervention for Prekindergarteners at Risk for Reading Failure

This study examined the effectiveness of an assessment and intervention study targeting prekindergarten children at risk for reading failure. Across 38 child care sites, 220 children were identified as “at risk” for reading failure due to their performance on a screening measure of early literacy skills and randomly assigned to receive immediate or delayed intervention. The intervention consisted of eighteen 30-minute lessons delivered twice weekly for 9 weeks and focused on teaching critical emergent literacy skills within small groups. Hierarchical linear models were used to nest children within center and measure treatment and dosage effects for students' residualized gains in rhyming, alliteration, picture naming, and print and letter knowledge skills. Results indicated significant treatment effects on two of four outcome variables (rhyming and alliteration) and significant dosage effects on all four variables. The study demonstrated a significant positive impact of this intervention for prekindergartners at risk for reading failure.

Troubles d’acquisition de la lecture en cours élémentaire : facteurs cognitifs, sociaux et comportementaux dans un échantillon de 1062 enfants

Background Reading impairment is the major learning disability in children. While research on illiteracy has mainly been conducted from a sociological perspective, research on dyslexia has typically been studied from a cognitive-linguistic perspective. Studies that jointly investigate sociological, behavioral and cognitive factors in predicting reading outcome are rare and limited to English-speaking populations. The goal of the present study was to screen second grade children with reading impairment in French urban elementary schools and to pin down the factors that explain the various facets of reading failure and success. Methods A total of 1062 children from 20 different schools in the city of Paris participated in the study. Different aspects of reading were assessed individually for children with a suspected impairment in reading acquisition. Subsequently, 131 poor readers and 50 typically developing readers were matched for sex, age, and school. For these children, medical, cognitive, behavioral and individual socioeconomic data were obtained. Group differences were examined and multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine how much variance in reading was explained by the various variables. Results The prevalence of poor reading skills in grade 2 was highly influenced by neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) (ranging from 3.3% in high SES to 20.5% in low SES areas). Among the SES variables, employment of the father was a significant predictor of poor reading. Among the cognitive variables, phonological awareness and rapid naming were the most significant factors, much more than verbal or nonverbal intelligence. Among the behavioral variables, attention was an important factor but not externalized symptoms. Multiple regression analyses showed that reading outcome was best predicted by phonological awareness skills and attention deficits. Conclusion The majority of children with reading disability come from low SES areas. As in the English literature, the most robust predictor for reading impairment is phonological awareness, even when SES is taken into account. In addition, attention deficits seemed to aggravate reading impairments for children with weak phonological awareness skills. Successful early prevention should focus on reinforcing phonological awareness, recoding and attention skills.