Reading Conditions Research Articles

Empirical Assessment of the Legibility of the Highway Gothic and Clearview Signage Fonts

Older drivers represent the fastest-growing segment of the driving population. Aging is associated with well-known declines in reaction time and visual processing, and, as such, future roadway infrastructure and related design considerations will need to accommodate this population. One potential area of concern is the legibility of highway signage. FHWA recently revoked an interim approval that allowed optional use of the Clearview typeface in place of the traditional Highway Gothic typeface for signage. The legibility of the two fonts was assessed with color combinations that maximized the contrast (positive or negative) or approximated a color configuration used in highway signage. Psychophysical techniques were used to establish thresholds for the time needed to decide accurately—under glancelike reading conditions—whether a string of letters was a word, as a proxy for legibility. These thresholds were lower for Clearview (indicating superior legibility) than for Highway Gothic across all conditions. Legibility thresholds were lowest for negative-contrast conditions and highest for positive-contrast conditions, with colored highway signs roughly between the two extremes. These thresholds also increased significantly across the age range studied. The method used to investigate the legibility of signage fonts adds methodological diversity to the literature along with evidence supporting the superior legibility of the Clearview font over Highway Gothic. The results do not suggest that the Clearview typeface is the optimal solution for all signage but they do indicate that additional scientific evaluations of signage legibility are warranted in different operating contexts.

声旁一致性对不同结构形声字识别的影响

通过眼动技术观察汉语阅读者在读音判断任务中对形声字声符和义符的注意规律，旨在探讨声符注意优势是否会受声符位置和声旁一致性高低的影响。结果发现：1) 一致性和结构的交互作用会导致声符注意优势的差异，在左形右声结构中，高一致字和低一致字的识别模式基本相同，声符注意优势明显；2) 在上形下声结构中，高一致字的声符注意优势会比低一致字更强；在左声右形结构和上声下形结构中，低一致字的声符注意优势会比高一致字更强。3) 推测大家族的抑制作用、义符携音性、汉字结构熟悉度、读音判断任务等可能成为声符注意优势产生差异的原因。 Aiming to find the phonetic consistency’s influence on different structures of phonogram characters in normal reading conditions, an Eyelink-1000 eye tracker was used to explore the role of phonetic radicals and semantic radicals in Chinese characters. The results showed that: 1) Phonetic radicals were given more attention than semantic radicals in all structures. Especially, when phonetic radicals were in the right or bottom of the characters, this advantage will be obvious. 2) Phonetic consistency plays a part in different structures of phonogram characters: Under the phonetic radical in right side structure, the consistency doesn’t make a difference in its recognition mode; Under the phonetic radical in left side and top side structures, semantic radical of high consistent word gain more attention; Under the phonetic radical in bottom side structure, phonetic radical of high consistent word gains more attention. 3) The differences of the advantage in phonetic radicals result from inhibitive effect of big size family, phonetic messages of semantic radicals, familiarity of Chinese characters’ structures and sound judgment task.

Does text contrast mediate binocular advantages in reading?

Humans typically make use of both of their eyes in reading and efficient processes of binocular vision provide a stable, single percept of the text. Binocular reading also comes with an advantage: reading speed is high and word frequency effects (i.e., faster lexical processing of words that are more often encountered in a language) emerge during fixations, which is not the case for monocular reading (Jainta, Blythe, & Liversedge, 2014). A potential contributor to this benefit is the reduced contrast in monocular reading: reduced text contrasts in binocular reading are known to slow down reading and word identification (Reingold & Rayner, 2006). To investigate whether contrast reduction mediates the binocular advantage, we first replicated increased reading time and nullified frequency effects for monocular reading (Experiment 1). Next, we reduced the contrast for binocular but whole sentences to 70% (Weber-contrast); this reading condition resembled monocular reading, but found no effect on reading speed and word identification (Experiment 2). A reasonable conclusion, therefore, was that a reduction in contrast is not the (primary) factor that mediates less efficient lexical processing under monocular reading. In a third experiment (Experiment 3) we reduced the sentence contrast to 40% and the pattern of results showed that, globally, reading was slowed down but clear word frequency effects were present in the data. Thus, word identification processes during reading (i.e., the word frequency effect) were qualitatively different in monocular reading compared with effects observed when text was read with substantially reduced contrast. (PsycINFO Database Record

Shared orthographic neuronal representations for spelling and reading

A central question in the study of the neural basis of written language is whether reading and spelling utilize shared orthographic representations. While recent studies employing fMRI to test this question report that the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and ventral occipitotemporal cortex (vOTC) are active during both spelling and reading in the same subjects (Purcell et al., 2011a; Rapp and Lipka, 2011), the spatial resolution of fMRI limits the interpretation of these findings. Specifically, it is unknown if the neurons which encode orthography for reading are also involved in spelling of the same words. Here we address this question by employing an event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging-adaptation (fMRI-A) paradigm designed to examine shared orthographic representations across spelling and reading. First, we identified areas that independently showed adaptation to reading, and adaptation to spelling. Then we identified spatial convergence for these two separate maps via a conjunction analysis. Consistent with previous studies (Purcell et al., 2011a; Rapp and Lipka, 2011), this analysis revealed the left dorsal IFG, vOTC and supplementary motor area. To further validate these observations, we then interrogated these regions using an across-task adaptation technique, and found adaptation across reading and spelling in the left dorsal IFG (BA 44/9). Our final analysis focused specifically on the Visual Word Form Area (VWFA) in the vOTC, whose variability in location among subjects requires the use of subject-specific identification mechanisms (Glezer and Riesenhuber, 2013). Using a functional localizer for reading, we defined the VWFA in each subject, and found adaptation effects for both within the spelling and reading conditions, respectively, as well as across spelling and reading. Because none of these effects were observed during a phonological/semantic control condition, we conclude that the left dorsal IFG and VWFA are involved in accessing the same orthography-specific representations for spelling and reading.

Effects of ambient illumination, contrast polarity, and letter size on text legibility under glance-like reading

Recent research on the legibility of digital displays has demonstrated a “positive polarity advantage”, in which black-on-white text configurations are more legible than their negative polarity, white-on-black counterparts. Existing research in this area suggests that the positive polarity advantage stems from the brighter illumination emitted by positive polarity displays, as opposed to the darker backgrounds of negative polarity displays. In the present study, legibility thresholds were measured under glance-like reading conditions using a lexical decision paradigm, testing two type sizes, display polarities, and ambient illuminations (near-dark and daylight-like). Results indicate that legibility thresholds, quantified as the amount of time needed to read a word accurately, were highest for the negative polarity configurations under dark ambient illumination, indicated worse performance. Conversely, the positive polarity conditions under dark ambient illumination and all conditions under bright illumination demonstrated significantly reduced thresholds, indicating greater legibility. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the “positive polarity advantage” arises because brighter illumination produces pupillary contraction that reduces optical aberrations as light enters the eye. These results have implications for the design of automotive interfaces and other scenarios in which an interface must be optimized for glance-like reading under variations in ambient lighting conditions.

Tonic accommodation predicts closed-loop accommodation responses

The purpose of this study is to examine the potential relationship between tonic accommodation (TA), near work induced TA-adaptation and the steady state closed-loop accommodation response (AR). Forty-two graduate students participated in the study. Various aspects of their accommodation system were objectively measured using an open-field infrared auto-refractor (Grand Seiko WAM-5500). Tonic accommodation was assessed in a completely dark environment. The association between TA and closed-loop AR was assessed using linear regression correlations and t-test comparisons. Initial mean baseline TA was 1.84diopter (D) (SD±1.29D) with a wide distribution range (−0.43D to 5.14D). For monocular visual tasks, baseline TA was significantly correlated with the closed-loop AR. The slope of the best fit line indicated that closed-loop AR varied by approximately 0.3D for every 1D change in TA. This ratio was consistent across a variety of viewing distances and different near work tasks, including both static targets and continuous reading. Binocular reading conditions weakened the correlation between baseline TA and AR, although results remained statistically significant. The 10min near reading task with a 3D demand did not reveal significant near work induced TA-adaptation for either monocular or binocular conditions. Consistently, the TA-adaptation did not show any correlation with AR during reading. This study found a strong association between open-loop TA and closed-loop AR across a variety of viewing distances and different near work tasks. Difference between the correlations under monocular and binocular reading condition suggests a potential role for vergence compensation during binocular closed-loop AR.

Validating self-paced sentence-by-sentence reading: story comprehension, recall, and narrative transportation

Previous studies on discourse have employed a self-paced sentence-by-sentence paradigm to present text and record reading times. However, presenting discourse this way does not mirror real-world reading conditions; for example, this paradigm prevents regressions to earlier portions of the text. The purpose of the present study is to investigate the ecological validity of self-paced sentence-by-sentence presentations by comparing it to normal page reading with respect to comprehension, recall, and narrative transportation, across two time points (immediate and delayed). Bayesian analyses found greater evidence in favor of the null hypothesis for transportation, indicating that little difference likely exists between sentence-by-sentence presentations and normal reading for this outcome. Weak evidence supporting the alternative hypothesis was found for immediate comprehension and recall, with participants who read the story as isolated sentences scoring marginally higher. Altogether, these results validate the self-paced sentence-by-sentence paradigm for measuring reading times, uncovering few differences in outcomes relative to natural reading.

The Effectiveness of Reading Conditions on Vocabulary Learning and Reading Comprehension: Focusing on Read-aloud, Listening, and Dictionary Use

The Effectiveness of Reading Conditions on Vocabulary Learning and Reading Comprehension: Focusing on Read-aloud, Listening, and Dictionary Use

Vertical error correction of eye trackers in nonrestrictive reading condition

Abstract The eye tracking technology is used for four decades for studying reading behavior. The applications are various: estimating the reader comprehension, identifying the reader, summarizing a read document, creating a reading-life log, etc. The gaze data used in such applications has to be accurate enough to perform the analysis. In order to improve the accuracy, most of the experiments are set up with restrictive conditions such as using a head fixation and a professional eye tracker. It implies that the results are valid only in restrictive laboratory settings and an unrealistic small error is produced by the experiment. However, the use of affordable eye trackers in realistic conditions of reading leads to large errors in the recordings. We propose a new algorithm to correct the vertical error and to align the gazes with the text. The proposed algorithm is robust to rereading and skipping some parts of text, contrary to all the other algorithms of the state of the art. We show that up to 69 % of the gazes are aligned with the correct text lines.

Book Review: Book Reviews

The Pastor Theologian: Resurrecting an Ancient Vision. By Gerald Hiestand and Todd Wilson. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 2015.187 pp. $18.99 (paper).The Pastor as Public Theologian: Reclaiming a Lost Vision. By Kevin J. Vanhoozer and Owen Strachan. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Academic, 2015. xi + 221 pp. $19.99 (cloth).What does a scholar-priest do? I am asked this or a related question with some frequency, especially when I am talking with a search committee. Sometimes question is about phrase scholar-priest, and what it means that I self-identify as one. Occasionally, deeper question pertains to my level of commitment to pastoral task, as in, Will being a scholarpriest distract me from being present to parish? Rarely, it is asked as part of a larger discussion about intellectual life of parish and how I might fit within said life. I have developed a response to different variations of questions. Yet, I am left concerned how linking life of scholarship and ministry would be a cause of quandary in first place.It is felicitous, then, to see emergence of interest to revitalize vocation of scholar-priest (or pastor theologian) in and for church. Two recent additions to this quest are Gerald Hiestand and Todd Wilsons The Pastor Theologian: Resurrecting an Ancient Vision and Kevin Vanhoozer and Owen Strachan s volume, The Pastor as Public Theologian: Reclaiming a Lost Vision. As their titles attest, both texts seek a retrieval of a vision that once animated pastoral vocation. As a work of retrieval, concern authors have is not to repristinate a past (and mythical) golden age of pastor Rather, goal is to read present ecclesial and conditions in a way that opens up a path for a robust vocation that restores minds to ecclesial body.Both books come at task of retrieving a vision for pastor theologian by attending to history, location, and activity of vocation. In terms of history, each book traces a similar heritage of learned clergy from Justin Martyr through Augustine to Luther and Calvin. According to Wilson and Hiestand, it is early modern period, with secularizing influences of European Enlightenment and North American experience of revolution and Second Great Awakening, that ushers in the demise of pastor theologian. What emerges in nineteenth century is growth of professional theologians in academy and a kind of anti-intellectualism in clergy. As a result, study and fostering of a imagination drifts away from life of church. If society were one grand dinner party, argues Strachan, the theologians were increasingly to be found in comer, left alone to their fantastic thoughts and their pious imprecations (p. 89). The single image of pastor theologian is replaced with a diptych: scholarly theologian teaching in university and pastor administrating to flock.It is not until twentieth century, with likes of Karl Barth and Dietrich Bonhoeffer, N. T. Wright and Alister McGrath, that vocation of pastor theologian begins to regain attention of church. Yet Wilson and Hiestand contend that church remains largely in a state of theological anemia that rests squarely on shoulders of a theologically anemic pastoral (p. 58). Even contributions of Wright, McGrath, and other lights have not been able to persuade church communities and denominations to create conditions for clergy to combine parish ministry with habits of study, writing, and teaching. In a stinging critique, Vanhoozer calls upon greater church community (including seminaries) to let go of mess of secular pottage (p. 183) that has detheologized vocation of pastor, and claim pastorate as once again proper location of theology and reasoning. …

Source credibility and the processing of refutation texts

The knowledge revision components framework (KReC) outlines the basic comprehension processes and text factors that can be accentuated to increase the potential for knowledge revision during reading. The goal of the present study was to explore source credibility as one such text factor. In Experiment 1, we established the utility of a set of refutation texts in influencing knowledge revision. Participants read ten refutation and ten control texts. The participants had faster reading times and higher posttest scores for the refutation than for the control texts, providing evidence for knowledge revision. In Experiment 2, we examined the influence of source credibility under normal reading conditions. Participants read 20 refutation texts, ten with high-credibility and ten with low-credibility sources. The reading times and posttest scores suggested that knowledge revision unfolded successfully, independent of credibility. Using the same texts, in Experiment 3 we examined the influence of direct instructions that made the credibility of the source of information more salient. When the credibility of the source was made salient, the revision process was disrupted in the low-credibility condition, as evidenced by slower reading times and lower posttest scores than in the high-credibility condition. The results add to our understanding of the factors that constrain knowledge revision during the reading of refutation texts, and are discussed in the context of the extant literature and KReC.

Learning words during shared book reading: The role of extratextual talk designed to increase child engagement

Shared book reading (SBR) is a valuable context for word learning during early childhood, and adults’ extratextual talk boosts the vocabulary building potential of SBR. We propose that the benefits of such talk depend largely on a reader’s success in promoting children’s active engagement (attention and interest) during SBR. When readers ask children questions about new words, especially if they respond to children in a prompt, contingent, and appropriate (positive) manner, this verbal responsiveness functions as an effective engagement strategy. We randomly assigned 3- and 4-year-olds to three reading conditions (low, moderate, and high) distinguished by the degree to which the reader used extratextual engagement strategies, including verbal responsiveness. Despite equal exposure to unfamiliar target words, children’s performance improved on two measures of word learning across the three conditions, demonstrating the value of engagement strategies in extratextual talk. This study provides a strong experimental demonstration that adult verbal responsiveness directly benefits preschoolers’ word learning.

Visual Graphetics and Language Ideology

There are certain sounds in the Greek-Cypriot dialect (henceforth GCD) that cannot be represented by characters from the Greek alphabet in its written form. Contradicting ideologies have made it impossible for Cypriots to settle on an official and common orthographic system, which has led to a rich variety of typographic conventions and many significant typographic drawbacks. This study aims to introduce a new set of typographic characters for the representation of the palato-alveolar GCD consonants that would provide ideal reading conditions for users (Unger, 2007; Noordzij, 2005; Bringhurst, 2005), while taking into consideration their political and cultural stances and needs. The new typographic system has been tested in two rounds of action research, providing both quantitative and qualitative data. The results show that the proposed system satisfies both the design and linguistic criteria of a successful written system as proposed by Sebba (2007), namely phonological accuracy, simplicity and readability.

Two hours of evening reading on a self-luminous tablet vs. reading a physical book does not alter sleep after daytime bright light exposure

BackgroundThe use of electronic devices emitting blue light during evening hours has been associated with sleep disturbances in humans, possibly due to the blue light-mediated suppression of the sleep-promoting hormone melatonin. However, experimental results have been mixed. The present study therefore sought to investigate if reading on a self-luminous tablet during evening hours would alter sleepiness, melatonin secretion, nocturnal sleep, as well as electroencephalographic power spectral density during early slow-wave sleep. MethodsFollowing a constant bright light exposure over 6.5 hours (~569 lux), 14 participants (six females) read a novel either on a tablet or as physical book for two hours (21:00–23:00). Evening concentrations of saliva melatonin were repeatedly measured. Sleep (23:15–07:15) was recorded by polysomnography. Sleepiness was assessed before and after nocturnal sleep. About one week later, experiments were repeated; participants who had read the novel on a tablet in the first experimental session continued reading the same novel in the physical book, and vice versa. ResultsThere were no differences in sleep parameters and pre-sleep saliva melatonin levels between the tablet reading and physical book reading conditions. ConclusionsBright light exposure during daytime has previously been shown to abolish the inhibitory effects of evening light stimulus on melatonin secretion. Our results could therefore suggest that exposure to bright light during the day – as in the present study – may help combat sleep disturbances associated with the evening use of electronic devices emitting blue light. However, this needs to be validated by future studies with larger sample populations.

Effect of Instructional Medium on Students’ Performance: A Comparison of Reading and Oral Instruction in Nigeria

Nigeria has a rich oral tradition. In the pre-literate Nigerian culture, knowledge and wisdom were shared through the oral methods of proverbs and storytelling. However, in modern formal education, knowledge is communicated largely through text. The purpose of this paper was to compare students’ performance based on these instructional mediums. Two studies using a between-subjects experimental design were conducted among Nigerian university students. Both studies included two conditions: lecture (oral) and reading (text). In both conditions, the same content was presented. In the reading condition, students read the content as an article whereas in the lecture condition, students listened to the content as a lecture. Post-test examination performance was then compared. Both experiments found that reading resulted in considerably higher academic performance than lecturing.Keywords: Instructional medium; Curriculum innovation; Teaching and learning

The Effect of Reciprocal Approach on Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategy, Comprehension, and Vocabulary

This study aimed to investigate how Korean EFL learners’ perceptual change of metacognitive awareness of reading strategies (MARS), comprehension, and vocabulary learning are influenced by reciprocal reading (RR) while reading test-based materials. These were compared with the results by translation-based reading (TR). Fifty-four participants were chosen and divided into the two reading conditions, who were involved in all data collection procedures during 6 weeks: a pre and a post questionnaire of MARS, a pre test for target words, two reading practices, two interventions for data, two post reading comprehension tests, two immediate tests for word recall and a delayed test for word retention. The results revealed that RR approach was effective in enhancing learners’ metacognitive awareness of reading strategies, comprehension and word knowledge. In perceptual change of MARS, learners in RR approach reported significant increases in metacognitive awareness of global, problem-solving, and support reading strategies, whereas TR group did not show any significant increase in those strategies. In both reading comprehension performance and receptive word gain, RR group benefited more than TR group, while immediate word recall was similar in both conditions. (Dankook University)

Does Excessive Attention to Speech Contribute to Stuttering? A Preliminary Study With a Reading Comprehension Task

People who stutter (PWS) presumably pay excessive attention to monitoring their speech, possibly exacerbating speech fluency. Using a reading comprehension task, we investigated whether or not PWS devote excessive attention to their speech. Methods Eleven PWS and 11 people who do not stutter (PNS) read passages in silent and oral reading conditions with and without noise masking, then answered comprehension questions. For PWS, auditory noise masking and silent reading would presumably divert their attention away from their speech. Results The comprehension performance of PWS was lower in the oral-no-masking condition than the oral-masking and silent-no-masking conditions. In contrast, there were no significant differences in the comprehension performance of PNS between the four conditions. Conclusions PWS had poor comprehension when listening to their speech, suggesting excessive attention to speech and limited attention to concurrent cognitive tasks.

Problem Solving as an Encoding Task: A Special Case of the Generation Effect

Recent evidence suggests that solving problems through insight can enhance long-term memory for the problem and its solution. Previous findings have shown that generation of the solution as well as experiencing a feeling of Aha! can have a beneficial relationship to later memory. These findings lead to the question of how learning in problem-solving tasks in which a novel solution needs to be generated—such as in tasks used to study insight— differs from the classical generation effect. Because previous studies on learning from insight on one hand and the generation effect on the other hand have measured different types of memory, the present study examined two kinds of memory measures: indirect (solving old and new problems at test) and direct (recognition memory). At encoding, we manipulated whether participants had the chance to solve Compound Remote Associates Task items and compared later memory for generated solutions (generate condition) to solutions that were presented after failing to generate one (fail-to-generate condition), and to solutions that were presented without a chance at generation (read condition). Participants also reported if they had an Aha! experience for each problem. While both Aha! experiences and generated solutions were associated with more positive emotional responses, only the generation variable was associated with differences in later memory performance. While attempts to generate had an advantage over the read condition in recognition memory performance (generate > fail-to-generate > read), only when generation was successful did it enhance the solution rate of old items during testing (generate > read > fail-to-generate). Contrary to generation effects with other verbal stimuli, these results suggest that the generation effect in problem-solving tasks in which a novel solution needs to be found differs from the classical generation effect. Seeing a correct solution for a longer time (read) seems in the current case to be more helpful for solving the same problem later on, compared to being presented with the solution after a failed attempt at problem solving. Correspondence: Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jasmin M. Kizilirmak, via email to kizilirmak@uni-hildesheim.de.

The Effect of Learner-Generated Drawing and Imagination in Comprehending a Science Text

ABSTRACTThe purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of imagination and learner-generated drawing on comprehension, reading time, cognitive load, and eye movements, and whether prior knowledge moderated the effects of these two strategies. Sixty-three undergraduate students participated in a pretest-posttest between-subjects study with the independent variable being the instructional strategies with three levels (learner-generated drawing vs. imagination vs. repeated reading). The results revealed that, compared to repeated reading, learner-generated drawing fostered learners' comprehension when their prior knowledge was relatively low. Moreover, when asked to read the science text after the intervention, learners who were previously engaged with imagination spent significantly more time reading the text, and fixated longer and more frequently than those in the repeated reading condition.

Reading from an iPad or from a book in bed: the impact on human sleep. A randomized controlled crossover trial

ObjectiveTo objectively and subjectively compare whether reading a story for 30 min from an iPad or from a book in bed prior to sleep will differentially affect sleep. MethodsSixteen students (12 females, mean age 25.1 ± 2.9 years) underwent ambulatory (sleeping in their own beds at home) polysomnographic (PSG) recordings in a counterbalanced crossover design consisting of three PSG nights (one adaptation night, two test nights) and two different reading materials: read from an iPad or from a book. Illumination was measured during reading and Karolinska Sleepiness Scale was completed prior to turning the light off. Sleep diaries were kept to assess subjective sleep parameters from day to day. ResultsIllumination was higher in the iPad condition compared to the book condition (58.3 ± 6.9 vs 26.7 ± 8.0 lux, p < 0.001). Reading a story from an iPad decreased subjective sleepiness, delayed the EEG dynamics of slow wave activity by approximately 30 min, and reduced slow wave activity after sleep onset compared to reading from a book. No parameters of sleep state timing and sleep onset latency differed between the two reading conditions. ConclusionAlthough there was no direct effect on time spent in different sleep states and self-reported sleep onset latency, the use of an iPad which emits blue enriched light impinges acutely on sleepiness and EEG characteristics of sleep pressure. Hence, the use of commercially available tablets may have consequences in terms of alertness, circadian physiology, and sleep.