Over fifty techniques have been developed during the past 25 years that permit molecular level investigation of structure and bonding of the surface monolayer. Among them, low-energy electron diffraction surface crystallography and vibrational spectroscopies using photons and electrons have contributed the lion's share of quantitative experimental data. (Most of these investigations have utilized small area (~1 cm 2) external surfaces, although microporous large internal surface area samples were also scrutinized.) From these studies, the physical picture of the surface which emerges is one of a separate phase with distinct structure, composition, and bonding that is distinguishable from the solid bulk. The new surface phenomena which were discovered include clean surface reconstruction, adsorbate-induced restructuring, ordering and reactivity of surface defects (steps and kinks), cluster-like bonding, the large mobility of adsorbates, and the coadsorption bond. Techniques were also developed that permit in situ molecular level study of surfaces during reactions at high pressures and temperatures with good time resolution (10 −12–10 −3 sec). Molecular surface science has had a great impact in major applications involving surface phenomena—selective adsorption, heterogeneous catalysis, coatings, microelectronics, electrochemistry, and tribology—and spawned new surface technologies. The demands of these applications focus attention on the behavior of the buried interface, both solid-liquid and solid-solid.