Flight Reactions Research Articles

How important is natural behaviour in animal farming systems?

It is often assumed and demanded that for a good welfare, farm animals should be given “the freedom to express their natural behaviour”. This demand is problematic for at least two reasons. First, natural behaviour is difficult to delineate because of its variability and flexibility. Second, some behavioural patterns that are clearly natural are in fact detrimental to animal welfare. These include emergency behaviours such as flight reactions that bring the animal into a state of stress without achieving the goal for which the behaviour had evolved; and damaging behaviours such as rank-related or illness-related aggression during which animals inflict injuries or deprive their penmates of resources. Nevertheless, when these reservations are taken into account, opening possibilities for natural behaviour may be useful as guidance for improving the existing husbandry systems. Specifically, providing the farm environment with the key features towards which the behaviour was originally adapted brings three classes of benefits. First, it is often more efficient to allow animals to satisfy their own needs and achieve their goals than to address these needs and goals through technical means. Second, a large class of natural behaviours is associated with positive affective experience, and thus their performance directly enhances animal welfare. Third, the performance of natural behaviour in its richness and complexity often brings long-term benefits for the animal, such as improved proficiency in coping with social and physical challenges. Thus, while the freedom to perform the whole repertoire of natural behaviour is not per se crucial for farm animal welfare, the opportunity to perform natural behaviour may be an effective way improve their welfare in practice immediately, and a promising basis for the design of husbandry systems for the future.

Flight reactions induced by injection of glutamate N-methyl- d-aspartate receptor agonist into the rat dorsolateral periaqueductal gray are not dependent on endogenous nitric oxide

Glutamate N-methyl- d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors and the enzyme neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) are significantly expressed in the midbrain dorsolateral periaqueductal gray (dlPAG). Local injections of either NMDA-receptor agonists or nitric oxide (NO) donors induce flight reactions in rats. Since the activation of NMDA receptors in the brain increases the synthesis of NO, the present work was conducted to test the hypothesis that the flight reaction induced by intra-dlPAG administration of NMDA would be mediated by endogenous NO. Male Wistar rats with cannulas aimed at the dlPAG received intracerebral injections of l-NAME (NOS inhibitor, 100–200 nmol), carboxy-PTIO (NO scavenger, 1–3 nmol) or ODQ (guanylate cyclase inhibitor, 1–3 nmol). Saline or NMDA (0.1 nmol) was injected 10 min later and the behavioral changes were recorded for 2 min in the injection box. Intra-dlPAG injection of NMDA produced flight reactions characterized by crossings and jumps. Contrary to the initial hypothesis, these effects were not prevented by pretreatment with l-NAME, carboxy-PTIO or ODQ. Although the NO pathway may mediate some effects induced by NMDA receptor activation in the brain, the present results suggest that the administration of NMDA into the dlPAG induces flight reactions by mechanisms that are independent of endogenous NO.

Effect of human activities on the behaviour of breeding Spanish imperial eagles (Aquila adalberti): management implications for the conservation of a threatened species

AbstractWe studied (14 500 h of field observations during 20 breeding attempts by 10 pairs) the effects of human activities on the behaviour of breeding Spanish imperial eagles. The probability that human activities around nest sites provoked a flight reaction varied significantly among territories and among types of activity, and increased when the distance between the activity and the nest site decreased, and increased when the number of people involved in each intrusion was higher. Pedestrian activities (mainly by hunters, campers and ecotourists) caused more flight reactions than vehicles. Overall, the probability of a reaction increased sharply when activities occurred at less than 450 m from the nest, but was negligible if they occurred at 800 m. Reaction probability was lower in territories with higher intrusion frequencies (which suggests that some habituation occurs), where the nest was not visible from the tracks, and in less ‘plain’ or ‘accessible’ territories. Hatching rate was affected negatively by the frequency of human activities. Our results suggest that the critical inner buffer zone around Spanish imperial eagle nests should be established at a minimum radius of 500 m, and the vulnerable zones at a minimum of 800 m, bearing in mind the physiography of the terrain and the visibility of the nests. Finally, in future studies of nest‐site selection with this species, it would be advisable to use a variable that quantifies (through field observations) human disturbance frequency.

Detection of Fight or Flight Reaction on Facial Skin Thermogram using Spatio-Temporal Spectrum Differential Analysis

It has been known that human being exhibits the Fight or Flight Reaction(FFR) when they feel anxiety, strain and threat. This paper describes experiments that were conducted to arouse the fight or flight reaction. Facial skin thermograms in which the temperature fluctuation in specific regions was identified were measured, and the characteristics of the temperature fluctuations in the relevant regions were quantitatively evaluated. The results showed that, for nine of the ten subjects, the FFR was confirmed in the form of reacted areas indicating acute increases in skin temperature, primarily in facial expression muscles such as the procerus muscle and cheek muscles. Additionally, the spatio-temporal spectrum differential analysis method for facial skin thermograms was proposed, and as a result of detecting spatio-temporal skin temperature fluctuations in the facial skin thermograms accompanying manifestation of the FFR, a detection rate of 76.5% was obtained. Thus, the effectiveness of the proposed technique was confirmed.

Fatalities after taking ibogaine in addiction treatment could be related to sudden cardiac death caused by autonomic dysfunction

Ibogaine is the most important alkaloid of the Central African Iboga-shrub. It is the central drug in Gabonian initiation ceremonies in which it is used to cause a near-death experience. In Western countries it is used in private clinics to treat addiction. However, in the United States and most European countries it is classified as an illegal drug because at least eight persons have died after having taken Ibogaine. These fatalities occurred in most cases several days after ingestion or following the intake of very small doses. There is no conclusive explanation at the present time for these deaths. We hypothesize, that these deaths may be a result of cardiac arrhythmias, caused by a dysregulation of the autonomic nervous system. Ibogaine affects the autonomic nervous system by influencing several neurotransmitter-systems and the fastigial nucleus. The cerebellar nucleus responds to small doses with a stimulation of the sympathetic system, leading to a fight or flight reaction. High doses, however, lead to a vagal dominance: a "feigned death". The risk of cardiac arrhythmias is increased in situations of sympathetic stimulation or coincidence of a high parasympathetic tonus and a left-sided sympathetic stimulation. This could occur under influence of small doses of ibogaine and also at times of exhaustion with a high vagal tonus, when sudden fear reactions could cause a critical left-sided sympathetic stimulation. Gabonian healers prevent these risks by isolating their patients from normal life and by inducing a trance-state with right-hemispheric and vagal dominance for several days.

Negative affect states and cardiovascular disorders: a review and the proposal of a unifying biopsychosocial concept

Aim The purpose of this review was to study the relationships between negative affect states and cardiovascular disorders. Procedure The phenomenology of the negative affect states of depression, helplessness, hopelessness, vital exhaustion and grief is described. Their correlations with morbidity and mortality are analyzed. The physiological correlates of the affect states are pointed out. Finally, the reaction pattern of conservation–withdrawal according to Schmale [ Psychosom. Med. 20 (1958) 259–277] and Engel [ Internat. J. Psychoanalysis 43 (1962) 89–97] and its ontogenesis are outlined. This is a disengaging behavior pattern as opposed to the engaging fight–flight reaction pattern of Cannon [ Psychosom. Med. 19 (1957) 182–190]. The giving up complex, with its affects of helplessness and hopelessness, is explained. Conclusions The giving up complex in the context of the conservation–withdrawal pattern presents a biologically and developmentally sound conceptual basis for the understanding of the relationships of the negative affect states with cardiovascular disorders. This enables the integration of the concept of vital exhaustion, which has become the most promising operationalized instrument in psychosocial cardiovascular research.

Recognition of partially concealed leopards by wild bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata)

Wild bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) have been shown to recognize models of leopards (Panthera pardus), based on their configuration and spotted yellow coat. This study examined whether bonnet macaques could recognize the spotted and dark melanic morph when partially concealed by vegetation. Seven troops were studied at two sites in southern India, the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary and the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. The forequarters and hindquarters of the two leopard morphs were presented from behind thick vegetation to individuals at feeding stations 25 m away. Flight reaction times and frequency of flight were obtained from video for only those individuals who oriented towards the models prior to hearing alarm calls. Bonnet macaques exhibited faster reaction times and greater frequency of flight after looking at the spotted morph's forequarter than after looking at either its spotted hindquarter or the dark morph's forequarter. The hindquarter of the dark morph was ignored completely. Artificial neural network modeling examined the perceptual aspects of leopard face recognition and the role of spots as camouflage. When spots were integrated into the pattern recognition process via network training, these spots contributed to leopard face recognition. When networks were not trained with spots, spots did not act as camouflage by disrupting facial features.

Novel hypothesis for the cause of panic disorder via the neuroepithelial bodies in the lung

Panic disorder (PD) is a complex condition that is further complicated by its numerous inducers, which include hypercapnia, hypoxia, sodium lactate, caffeine and cholecystokinin. It seems unlikely that there are specific suffocation receptors for each of these inducers in the brain. The pulmonary neuroepithelial bodies (NEBs), which are situated at the bifurcation point of the small bronchi, act as storage cells for 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and sensors for suffocation. If we suppose that PD might represent an inflammation of the NEBs, bradykinin (BK) which augments the airway hyper-response to diverse indcers might cause these cells to release 5-HT along with peptides and panneuroendcrine markers from their dence-core secretory granules. It was revealed that BK with 5-HT could cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). When 5-HT released from these cells along with BK cross the BBB, the release of 5-HT at the axonal terminals in the serotonergic neurons in the brain will be inhibited, since the 5-HT1 autoreceptor have a higher affinity for 5-HT than do the 5-HT2 receptors. The inhibition of 5-HT at the axonal terminal causes to suppress the periaqueductal gray matter, which inhibits flight reactions to impending danger, pain or asphyxia. In short, this serotonergic situation might bring about PD. According to this theory, the type of inducer that the PD patient is exposed to is unimportant as long as it stimulates the NEBs, and through the effect of 5-HT and BK, PD would be revaluated as a somatic disease that directly and reversibly affects the brain.

Organization of electrically and chemically evoked defensive behaviors within the deeper collicular layers as compared to the periaqueductal gray matter of the rat

Stimulation of the periaqueductal gray matter (PAG) and the deeper layers of superior colliculus (SC) produces both freezing (tense immobility) and flight (trotting, galloping and jumping) behaviors along with exophthalmus (fully opened bulging eyes) and, less often, micturition and defecation. The topography of these behaviors within the distinct layers of SC remains unclear. Therefore, this study compared the defensive repertoire of intermediate (ILSC) and deep (DLSC) layers of SC to those of dorsolateral periaqueductal gray matter (DLPAG) and lateral periaqueductal gray matter (LPAG) [Neuroscience 125 (2004) 71]. Electrical stimulation was carried out through intensity- (0–70μA) and frequency-varying (0–130Hz) pulses. Chemical stimulation employed a slow microinfusion of N-methyl- d-aspartic acid (NMDA, 0–2.3nmol, 0.5nmol/min). Probability curves of intensity-, frequency- and NMDA-evoked behaviors, as well as the unbiased estimates of median stimuli, were obtained by threshold logistic analysis. Compared with the PAG, the most important differences were the lack of frequency-evoked jumping in both layers of SC and the lack of NMDA-evoked galloping in the ILSC. Moreover, although galloping and jumping were also elicited by NMDA stimulation of DLSC, effective doses were about three times higher than those of DLPAG, suggesting the spreading of the injectate to the latter structure. In contrast, exophthalmus, immobility and trotting were evoked throughout the tectum structures. However, whatever the response and kind of stimulus, the lowest thresholds were always found in the DLPAG and the highest ones in the ILSC. Besides, neither the appetitive, nor the offensive, muricide or male reproductive behaviors were produced by any kind of stimulus in the presence of appropriate targets. Accordingly, the present data suggest that the deeper layers of SC are most likely involved in the increased attentiveness (exophthalmus, immobility) or restlessness (trotting) behaviors that herald a full-blown flight reaction (galloping, jumping) mediated in the PAG.

Localization of β1-Adrenergic Receptors in the Cochlea and the Vestibular Labyrinth

Sympathetic activation in a "fight or flight reaction" may put the sensory systems for hearing and balance into a state of heightened alert via beta1-adrenergic receptors (beta1-AR). The aim of the present study was to localize beta1-AR in the gerbil inner ear by confocal immunocytochemistry, to characterize beta1-AR by Western immunoblots, and to identify beta1-AR pharmacologically by measurements of cAMP production. Staining for beta1-AR was found in strial marginal cells, inner and outer hair cells, outer sulcus, and spiral ganglia cells of the cochlea, as well as in dark, transitional and supporting cells of the vestibular labyrinth. Receptors were characterized in microdissected inner ear tissue fractions as 55 kDa non-glycosylated species and as 160 kDa high-mannose-glycosylated complexes. Pharmacological studies using isoproterenol, ICI-118551 and CGP-20712A demonstrated beta1-AR as the predominant adrenergic receptor in stria vascularis and organ of Corti. In conclusion, beta1-AR are present and functional in inner ear epithelial cells that are involved in K+ cycling and auditory transduction, as well as in neuronal cells that are involved in auditory transmission.

Group size influences foraging effort independent of predation risk: an experimental study on rainbow trout

Foraging effort, swimming activity, vertical position and flight response were recorded in focal juvenile rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss at three group sizes: without company, or in visual and chemical contact with either one or five companion fish at two levels of predation risk: high (simulated aerial predator attack) or low (no attack). The predator attack induced a pronounced flight reaction as well as a reduction in vertical position, feeding and swimming activity. The foraging effort of the focal fish increased with group size independent of the level of predation risk, which suggests that the group‐mediated increase in foraging activity is caused by competition rather than by reduction in perceived risk. The flight response to the predator attack, however, was stronger when the focal fish had company, suggesting that individuals may benefit from copying the anti‐predator response of other group members.

Production of exotic Λ hypernuclei via mesonic beams

We study the production of neutron-rich hypernuclei Λ 12 Be, Λ 16 C, and Λ 10 Li by the (π −, K +) and (K −, π +) reactions in flight and treat two different mechanisms of production. The first mechanism is a two-step process with meson charge exchange (e.g., π − p → π 0 n, π 0 p → K +Λ). The other mechanism is one-step production (π − p → K +Σ−) proceeding via a small Σ− component, arising in Λ hypernuclei due to ΛN–ΣN coupling, as a doorway state. Typically, the two-step mechanism is more productive. The forward differential cross section of the 10B(π −,K +) reaction is about 70 nb/sr at an incident momentum of 1.05 GeV/c. On the other hand, the one-step process can serve as a direct measurement of the Σ admixture if the two-step contribution is suppressed by a suitable choice of the reaction kinematics.

Ionotropic glutamate-receptor antagonists inhibit the aversive effects of nitric oxide donor injected into the dorsolateral periaqueductal gray of rats.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a gas neurotransmitter that may facilitate glutamate release in the central nervous system. NO donors or glutamate agonists injected into the dorsolateral periaqueductal grey (dlPAG) induce flight behaviour. To test the hypothesis that the defensive reactions induced by an NO donor in the dlPAG would be attenuated by pretreatment with AMPA/kainate or NMDA glutamate receptor antagonists. Male Wistar rats with cannulae aimed at the dlPAG received vehicle, AP7 (a NMDA receptor antagonist, 2 nmol) or NBQX (an AMPA/kainite receptor antagonist, 100 nmol) injection 10 min before the administration of SIN-1 (an NO donor, 300 nmol). Immediately after the last injection, their behavior was observed in an open arena during 10 min. SIN-1 induced flight reactions characterized by running and jumps. Pretreatment with AP7 or NBQX completely prevented the effects of SIN-1. The results suggest that the aversive reactions induced by an NO donor in the dlPAG depend on ionotropic glutamate receptor activation.

Flight reactions to nitric oxide in the inferior colliculus of rats depend on NMDA receptor activation

The dorsolateral periaqueductal grey (dlPAG) is proposed to play a role in the elaboration of defensive behaviors. Nitric oxide (NO) donors, injected into this region, induce flight reactions. The reactions have also been observed after electrical or chemical stimulation of the inferior colliculus (IC). The enzyme responsible for NO formation, neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), is expressed in the IC. The aims of this study were to investigate if NO donors injected into the IC would also cause aversive reactions and if these reactions would involve activation of NMDA receptors. The results showed that 3-morpholinosylnomine hydrochloride (SIN-1; 300 nmol), an NO donor, injected into the central nucleus but not into the dorsal cortex of the IC (CIC and DCIC, respectively) of male Wistar rats induced flight reactions characterized by galloping and jumps. Pretreatment (10 min) with methylene blue (MB; 100 or 200 nmol), a guanylate cyclase (GC) inhibitor, partially inhibited this flight reaction, decreasing the number of jumps. 8-Bromo-cGMP (8-Br-GMP), a membrane-permeable cGMP analogue, increased the number of contralateral turnings. Pretreatment (10 min) with the NMDA receptor antagonist amino-7-phosphonoheptanoic acid (AP7; 2 nmol) completely prevented the effects of SIN-1. It is concluded that NO may induce aversive reactions in the CIC and that these reactions depend on NMDA receptor activation. They may also partially involve facilitation of GC activity.

A temporarily planktonic terebellid polychaete

Mass swarming of a basically sessile terebellid polychaete was observed in the free water column off the south-west coast of Madagascar. Specimens are described and tentatively identified as Loimiamedusa (Savigny, 1818). Swimming behaviour is documented and the phenomenon is discussed as a flight reaction to an environmental disturbance event.

The end of stress as we know it

Modern life throws a variety of stressful situations at us. This book aims to show stress in a different light - as a natural bodily reaction to help us through certain situations. Although our bodies produce the fight or flight reaction when subjected to stress, it often seems inappropriate - our increased heart and lung rate and the chemicals injected into system by the brain can cause illnesses such as asthma and diabetes. This text invites us to improve our brain-body connections in an approach to healthy living based on science. It aims to encourage us to use our natural abilities to cope with stress, rather than falling victim to it.

Effects of Hypericum perforatum and paroxetine in the mouse defense test battery

Since (a) Hypericum perforatum shows anxiolytic-like effect in some animal models, (b) antidepressant drugs (AD) have been used as the main drug treatment for panic disorder (PD), (c) AD are also effective in generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), and (d) H. perforatum exhibits antidepressant activity, it was hypothesized that H. perforatum might possess an antipanic-like and/or anxiolytic-like effect. Previous studies with the mouse defense test battery (MDTB) have suggested that this model may be useful for the investigation of anxiolytic-like and antipanic-like compounds. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of H. perforatum extract in the MDTB. The effect of acute, subchronic (7 days), and chronic (21 days) H. perforatum (150 and 300 mg/kg) extract administration was evaluated in mice submitted to the MDTB. Paroxetine (5 mg/kg), a selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor with anxiolytic and antipanic effect, was used as a positive control. The results showed that 21 days of repeated administration of H. perforatum 300 mg/kg and paroxetine 5 mg/kg reduced flight reactions (number of avoidances, avoidance distance, and overall flight speed) to the presence of the predator. While the effect of paroxetine confirms that MDTB is useful for the detection of antipanic-like drugs, the effect of H. perforatum suggests a putative antipanic-like effect for this extract. Moreover, after 21 days of repeated administration, paroxetine increased the number of approaches/withdrawals and reduced the number of upright postures, suggesting a partial anxiolytic-like effect, while H. perforatum only reduced the number of upright postures. The present results suggest anxiolytic-like and antipanic-like effects of H. perforatum extract. However, it should be emphasized that the risk assessment (the main index of anxiety) was not affected by the extract, while the attack reactions were only weakly modified.

The dorsal raphe nucleus exerts opposed control on generalized anxiety and panic-related defensive responses in rats

It has been proposed that the ascending dorsal raphe (DR)-serotonergic (5-HT) pathway facilitates conditioned avoidance responses to potential or distal threat, while the DR-periventricular 5-HT pathway inhibits unconditioned flight reactions to proximal danger. Dysfunction on these pathways would be, respectively, related to generalized anxiety (GAD) and panic disorder (PD). To investigate this hypothesis, we microinjected into the rat DR the benzodiazepine inverse receptor agonist FG 7142, the 5-HT 1A receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT or the GABA A receptor agonist muscimol. Animals were evaluated in the elevated T-maze (ETM) and light/dark transition test. These models generate defensive responses that have been related to GAD and PD. Experiments were also conducted in the ETM 14 days after the selective lesion of DR serotonergic neurons by 5,7-dihydroxytriptamine (DHT). In all cases, rats were pre-exposed to one of the open arms of the ETM 1 day before testing. The results showed that FG 7142 facilitated inhibitory avoidance, an anxiogenic effect, while impairing one-way escape, an anxiolytic effect. 8-OH-DPAT, muscimol, and 5,7-DHT-induced lesions acted in the opposite direction, impairing inhibitory avoidance while facilitating one-way escape from the open arm. In the light/dark transition, 8-OH-DPAT and muscimol increased the time spent in the lighted compartment, an anxiolytic effect. The data supports the view that distinct DR-5-HT pathways regulate neural mechanisms underlying GAD and PD.

Virtual-Reality Techniques Resolve the Visual Cues Used by Fruit Flies to Evaluate Object Distances

Insects can estimate distance or time-to-contact of surrounding objects from locomotion-induced changes in their retinal position and/or size [1–8]. Freely walking fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) use the received mixture of different distance cues to select the nearest objects for subsequent visits [9, 10]. Conventional methods of behavioral analysis fail to elucidate the underlying data extraction. Here we demonstrate first comprehensive solutions of this problem by substituting virtual for real objects; a tracker-controlled 360° panorama converts a fruit fly's changing coordinates into object illusions that require the perception of specific cues to appear at preselected distances up to infinity. An application reveals the following: (1) en-route sampling of retinal-image changes accounts for distance discrimination within a surprising range of at least 8–80 body lengths (20–200 mm). Stereopsis and peering are not involved. (2) Distance from image translation in the expected direction (motion parallax) outweighs distance from image expansion, which accounts for impact-avoiding flight reactions to looming objects. (3) The ability to discriminate distances is robust to artificially delayed updating of image translation. Fruit flies appear to interrelate self-motion and its visual feedback within a surprisingly long time window of about 2 s. The comparative distance inspection practiced in the small fruit fly deserves utilization in self-moving robots.

Similarities and Differences in Psychophysiological Reactions Between Simulated and Real Air-to-Ground Missions

This study examines the similarities and differences in psychophysiological reactions in simulated and real flight. Five fighter pilots from the Swedish Air Force participated in the study, flying the same type of mission in a simulator and in real flight. Each pilot flew the same mission 3 times in the simulator and later 3 times in real flight. The pilots' heart rate, heart rate variability, and eye movements were continuously measured. Analyses of these data indicate that the pilots' psychophysiological reactions are very analogous in the simulator and in real flight.