Monetary Policy Reaction Function Research Articles

Testing for Weak Identification in Possibly Nonlinear Models

In this paper we propose a chi-square test for identification. Our proposed test statistic is based on the distance between two shrinkage extremum estimators. The two estimators converge in probability to the same limit when identification is strong, and their asymptotic distributions are different when identification is weak. The proposed test is consistent not only for the alternative hypothesis of no identification but also for the alternative of weak identification, which is confirmed by our Monte Carlo results. We apply the proposed technique to test whether the structural parameters of a representative Taylor-rule monetary policy reaction function are identified.

Testing for weak identification in possibly nonlinear models

In this paper we propose a chi-square test for identification. Our proposed test statistic is based on the distance between two shrinkage extremum estimators. The two estimators converge in probability to the same limit when identification is strong, and their asymptotic distributions are different when identification is weak. The proposed test is consistent not only for the alternative hypothesis of no identification but also for the alternative of weak identification, which is confirmed by our Monte Carlo results. We apply the proposed technique to test whether the structural parameters of a representative Taylor-rule monetary policy reaction function are identified.

Asset price bubbles, monetary policy and financial crisis

In this paper, asset price bubbles in equities and housing that were developed from August 1987 to September 2008 are examined. Monetary policy reaction functions are estimated. Results revealed that, although not successful in pricking the bubble, the Federal Reserve System did follow a restrictive monetary policy with respect to the equity price bubble. Results also indicate that monetary policy did not respond to housing price bubbles. The findings suggest that the bursting of the housing price bubble in early 2007 resulted in the recent financial crisis. This crisis, together with the rise in oil prices and an unnecessarily restrictive monetary policy, led to the start of the recession in December 2007 and the subsequent collapse of equity prices.

Incorporating Financial Sector Risk into Monetary Policy Models: Application to Chile

This paper builds a model of financial sector vulnerability and integrates it into a macroeconomic framework, typically used for monetary policy analysis. The main question to be answered with the integrated model is whether or not the central bank should include explicitly the financial stability indicator in its monetary policy (interest rate) reaction function. It is found in general, that including distance-to-default (dtd) of the banking system in the central bank reaction function reduces both inflation and output volatility. Moreover, the results are robust to different model calibrations: whenever exchange-rate pass-through is higher; financial vulnerability has a larger impact on the exchange rate, as well as on GDP (or the reverse, there is more effect of GDP on bank’s equity - i.e., what we call endogeneity), it is more efficient to include dtd in the reaction function.

Incorporating Financial Sector Risk into Monetary Policy Models: Application to Chile

This paper builds a model of financial sector vulnerability and integrates it into a macroeconomic framework, typically used for monetary policy analysis. The main question to be answered with the integrated model is whether or not the central bank should include explicitly the financial stability indicator in its monetary policy (interest rate) reaction function. It is found in general, that including distance-to-default (dtd) of the banking system in the central bank reaction function reduces both inflation and output volatility. Moreover, the results are robust to different model calibrations: whenever exchange-rate pass-through is higher; financial vulnerability has a larger impact on the exchange rate, as well as on GDP (or the reverse, there is more effect of GDP on bank's equity - i.e., what we call endogeneity), it is more efficient to include dtd in the reaction function.

Politics and Monetary Policy

Abstract How and why do politicians' preferences about monetary policy differ from the interest rates set by independent central banks? Looking at the European Central Bank (ECB), this paper shows that politicians, on average, favor significantly lower interest rates. Three factors explain the different preferences. First, politicians put relatively less weight on inflation (and more on output) in their preferred monetary policy reaction function. Second, their preferences are affected by political economy motives. Third, different preferences are also, and largely, due to different constituencies, as politicians primarily focus on national economic objectives rather than the euro area as a whole.

ZONE‐TARGETING MONETARY POLICY PREFERENCES AND FINANCIAL MARKET CONDITIONS: A FLEXIBLE NON‐LINEAR POLICY REACTION FUNCTION OF THE SARB MONETARY POLICY

AbstractWe estimate a flexible model of the monetary policy reaction function of the South African Reserve Bank based on a representation of the policymaker's preferences that capture asymmetries and zone‐targeting behaviours. We augment the analysis to allow for responses to financial market conditions over and above inflation and output stabilisation to address the current debate on the importance of financial asset prices in monetary policy decision making. The empirical results show that the monetary authorities' response to inflation is zone symmetric. Secondly, the monetary authorities' response to output is asymmetric with increased reaction during business cycle downturns relative to upturns. Thirdly, the monetary authorities pay close attention to the financial conditions index by placing an equal weight on financial market booms and recessions.

The Taylor Rule and Monetary Policy in the Euro Area

We estimate the reaction function of monetary policy in the and derive the Taylor-type policy rule that a would-be ECB would have followed since the beginning of the European Monetary System (1979-2003). We first follow the standard GMM methodology developed by Clarida, Gali and Gertler (1998) under the statistically valid assumption of a stationary data set. A detailed robustness analysis is conducted, in order to assess how the estimation results are affected by changes in the period under review, the set of instruments and the way the output gap is computed. Using the Kalman filter, we estimate in particular a measure of the output gap that is consistent with a small macroeconomic model, which constitutes a novelty of our approach. Secondly, we re-estimate the historical interest rate rule under the assumption of non-stationary data over the 1985-2003 period, following a methodology recently proposed by Gerlach-Kristen (2003). These empirical investigations lead to a reasonably robust descriptive tool of the systematic element in the monetary policy that prevailed on average in the Euro area over the last two decades.

Assessing McCallum and Taylor rules in a cross-section of emerging market economies

The paper estimates McCallum and Taylor monetary policy reaction functions, hybrids mixing instruments and targets from the two frameworks, and nominal feedback mechanisms for 20 emerging market economies. The choice of framework employed in analysing each country is informed by the corresponding institutional setting. McCallum–Taylor specifications with an interest rate instrument and a nominal income gap target perform better than benchmark Taylor reaction functions in describing monetary policy in inflation targeting economies. Estimating reaction functions for economies operating monetary and exchange rate targeting regimes produces mixed results, while the nominal feedback rules reveal a lean-with-the-wind behaviour in two out of three economies.

Optimal monetary policy reaction function in a model with target zones and asymmetric preferences for South Africa

This paper estimates the optimal response of the SARB to deviations of inflation and output from their target values over the inflation targeting era. This is achieved using an empirical framework that allows the central bank's policy preferences to be zone-like and asymmetric. The first major finding is that the monetary authorities' response towards inflation is zone symmetric. That is, they react in a passive manner when inflation is within the target band whereas they become increasingly aggressive when it deviates from the target band. The monetary authorities also react with the same level of aggressiveness regardless of whether inflation overshoots or undershoots the inflation target band. The second major finding is that the monetary authorities' response to output fluctuations is asymmetric. That is, they react more aggressively to negative deviations of output from the potential so that they weigh business cycle recessions more than expansions.

Response of Output Fluctuations in Costa Rica to Exchange Rate Movements and Global Economic Conditions and Policy Implications

Applying a three-equation model incorporating the monetary policy reaction function, this study finds that the real exchange rate and real GDP exhibit a bell-shaped relationship, suggesting that real depreciation raises real output during 2000.Q1-2005.Q2 whereas real appreciation increases real output during 2005.Q3-2008.Q4 or after real GDP has reached approximately 440,000 billion colones. Other findings are that a lower ratio of government consumption spending to GDP, a lower real federal funds rate, a higher world real income, and a lower expected inflation rate would increase real output. Major policy implications are that real appreciation instead of real depreciation would raise real output after 2005.Q2, that fiscal prudence needs to be followed, and that global economic conditions including world real income and the world real interest rate are important in affecting real output for Costa Rica.

Can central banks’ monetary policy be described by a linear (augmented) Taylor rule or by a nonlinear rule?

The original Taylor rule establishes a simple linear relation between the interest rate, inflation and the output gap. An important extension to this rule is the assumption of a forward-looking behaviour of central banks. Now they are assumed to target expected inflation and output gap instead of current values of these variables. Using a forward-looking monetary policy reaction function, this paper analyses whether central banks’ monetary policy can indeed be described by a linear Taylor rule or, instead, by a nonlinear rule. It also analyses whether that rule can be augmented with a financial conditions index containing information from some asset prices and financial variables. The results indicate that the monetary behaviour of the European Central Bank and Bank of England is best described by a nonlinear rule, but the behaviour of the Federal Reserve of the United States can be well described by a linear Taylor rule. Our evidence also suggests that only the European Central Bank is reacting to financial conditions.

Comparing constraints to economic stabilization in Macedonia and Slovakia: macroestimates with micronarratives

This article re-emphasizes the link from structural policies to enhanced macroeconomic stabilization using a small structural model estimated on quarterly data for Macedonia and Slovakia over 1995–2007. The success of macroeconomic stabilization, typically in the hands of monetary policy, is not only determined by a suitable choice of the nominal anchor, which shapes the reaction function of monetary policy, but also the constraints within which the monetary policy strives to achieve its objectives. The key attributes of the constraints to macroeconomic stabilization are economic rigidities and structural shocks. By benchmarking the estimated economic rigidities and structural shocks faced by Macedonia to those faced by Slovakia, we find that Macedonia has relatively weaker transmission mechanisms of monetary policy, higher output rigidity, a lower exchange rate pass-through, and faces larger external shocks. For Macedonia, these relatively higher constraints on monetary policy together with the chosen exchange rate anchor result in higher output and inflation volatility relative to Slovakia. Hence, it appears that small open economies with stronger economic rigidities should apply monetary policy regimes that allow for more flexible adjustments in external relative prices to enhance their macroeconomic stability.

Inflation targeting and the exchange rate: Does it matter in Turkey?

This paper investigates the monetary policy reaction functions of the Central Bank of Republic of Turkey (CBRT) over the periods 1987:01–2001:12 and 2002:01–2009:05. We specifically attempt to shed light on question to what extent exchange rate developments still continue to influence monetary policy, even under inflation targeting. This study seeks to investigate how the monetary policy responded to the exchange rate shocks before and after adoption of inflation targeting regime. How large the effect of exchange rate shocks is accounted for in forecast error variances decompositions for monetary policy as compared to other shocks? Using the VAR model, this study shows that there has been strong pass-through during whole period. Moreover, in the postcrisis period, exchange rate has been the main reaction variable for the CBRT.

Impact of asset price fluctuation on China’s monetary policy: An empirical analysis based on quarterly data, 1994–2006

The strenuous fluctuation in global asset price in recent years has had a profound impact on the economic and social development of every country. An empirical analysis indicates that asset prices (the stock price index and real estate prices) are important endogenous variables affecting the interest rate reaction function of central bank monetary policy. With expected inflation as a given, each one percentage point rise in output gap will cause a 0.79 percentage point reduction in interest rates by the central bank and each one percentage point rise in real estate price will result in a 2.2 percentage point rise in interest rates. The stock price index does have an influence on the trends in monetary policy, but it is less salient than the impact of housing prices. We also show that monetary policy that employs asset price as an endogenous variable increases the central bank’s control in seeking to attain its objectives. Therefore we suggest that the central bank should make asset price fluctuation an endogenous variable and incorporate it into its forward-looking interest rate rule, in order to facilitate the healthy development of China’s markets for real estate, stocks and derivatives, energy and bulk commodities and maintain rapid, smooth, sustainable and harmonious economic development.

Stock Market Uncertainty and Monetary Policy Reaction Functions of the Federal Reserve Bank

In this paper we examine the link between stock market uncertainty and monetary policy in the US. There are strong arguments why central banks should account for stock market uncertainty in their strategy. Amongst others, they can maintain the functioning of financial markets and moderate possible economic downswings. To describe the behavior of the Federal Reserve Bank, augmented forward-looking Taylor rules are estimated by GMM. The standard specification is expanded by a measure for stock market uncertainty, which is estimated by an exponential GARCH-model. We show that, given a certain level of inflation and output, US central bank rates are significantly lower when stock market uncertainty is high and vice versa. These results are achieved by using the federal funds rate from 1980:10 to 2007:7.

Monetary Policy Reaction Functions in the OECD

Monetary policy reaction functions can provide insights into the factors influencing monetary policy decisions. Empirical estimates suggest that differences exist across countries as to whether monetary policy reacts solely to expected inflation or also takes into account expected output developments. A range of other factors, such as monetary policy in large economies, can also influence monetary policy reactions in smaller ones. On the other hand, monetary policy has reacted less to contemporaneous measures of the output gap, while asset price developments do not generally appear to have influenced monetary policy decisions. Les fonctions de reaction de la politique monetaire dans la zone de l'OCDE Les fonctions de reaction de la politique monetaire peuvent utilement eclairer les facteurs qui influent sur les decisions de politique monetaire. Les estimations empiriques montrent qu’il y a des differences d’un pays a l’autre sur le point de savoir si la politique monetaire reagit uniquement a l’inflation anticipee, ou prend egalement en compte l’evolution previsible de la production. Plusieurs autres facteurs, notamment la politique monetaire des grandes economies, peut egalement influer sur les reactions de politique monetaire dans les petites economies. En revanche, la politique monetaire a moins reagi aux mesures instantanees de l’ecart de production et l’evolution des prix des actifs ne parait pas en general avoir influence les decisions de politique monetaire.

Assessing Mccallum and Taylor Rules in a Cross-Section of Emerging Market Economies

The paper estimates McCallum and Taylor monetary policy reaction functions, and hybrids mixing instruments and targets from the two frameworks, for 20 emerging market economies. McCallum-Taylor specifications with an interest rate instrument and a nominal income gap target perform better than benchmark Taylor rules in describing monetary policy in inflation targeting economies. Estimating reaction functions for economies operating monetary and exchange rate targeting regimes produces mixed results, often revealing a lean with the wind behaviour. Instrument smoothing is a feature in the monetary base and in the interest rate reaction functions, but the exchange rate is not consistently significant. The results from the econometric analysis are robust to using alternative estimators.

How robust is the Fed reaction function to changes in the output-gap specification?

Using alternative measures of the output gap, we estimate a forward-looking monetary policy reaction function, similar to those estimated by Clarida et al. (1998, 2000), for Greenspan's period as a chairman of the Board of Governors of the US Federal Reserve System. We are able to show that the reaction function that considers an output gap based on the industrial production index instead of the unemployment rate better captures the behaviour of the Federal Reserve during Greenspan's period.

Monetary policy inertia: More a fiction than a fact?

Empirical estimates of monetary policy reaction functions feature a very high estimated degree of monetary policy inertia. This evidence is very hard of reconcile with the alternative evidence of low predictability of monetary policy rates. In this paper we examine the potential relevance of the problem of weak instruments to correctly identify the degree of monetary policy inertia in forward-looking monetary policy reaction function of the type originally proposed by Taylor [1993. Discretion versus policy rules in practice. Canergie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy, 39, 195–214]. After appropriately diagnosing and taking care of the weak instruments problem, we find an estimated degree of policy inertia which is significantly lower than the common value in the empirical literature on monetary policy rules.