Reactance Theory Research Articles

Are Intrusiveness and Sexual Images Effective in Advertisements? The Influence of Ad Format and Sexually Appealing Content on Mobile News Consumers

We examined the association of intrusive and sexually appealing advertisements in a mobile news environment with audiences’ perceptions of the content and reactive behaviors. Based on the psychological reactance theory, we conducted a 2 × 2 (sexual ad versus nonsexual ad × highly intrusive ad versus low intrusive ad) full factorial experimental design measuring associations with behavioral ad avoidance and ad memory (recall and recognition). The results indicate that users were more concerned to avoid pop-up ads than banner ads. Also, we observed significant main effects of intrusiveness and sexual appeals in advertisements on audiences’ recall of ads. Our findings call into question the effectiveness of advertising that relies on intrusive exposure and sexual images.

Understanding online shopping hate in social commerce context: antecedents and consequences of psychological reactance

PurposeThis study explores the underlying mechanism of psychological reactance that leads to online shopping hate in social commerce. Based on self-congruity and psychological reactance theory, this study examines the antecedents (symbolic, functional and emotional incongruence) and consequences (online shopping hate) of psychological reactance among online users toward online shopping. Moreover, this study takes trustworthiness as a moderator in the relationship between attitude ambivalence and psychological reactance.Design/methodology/approachData were collected from online users.FindingsThe results show that symbolic-incongruence and functional-incongruence are responsible for attitude ambivalence, resulting in high psychological reactance. In addition, the study’s findings reveal that psychological reactance is positively linked with online shopping hate. This study extends and contributes to the self-congruence theory and empirically examines the influence of emotional incongruence. The moderating results reveal that trustworthiness moderated the relationship between attitude ambivalence and psychological reactance. The study findings are helpful for marketing managers to develop social commerce strategies.Research limitations/implicationsBecause of the chosen research approach, the research results may lack generalizability. Therefore, researchers are encouraged to test the proposed propositions further.Practical implicationsThe study findings are helpful for marketing managers to develop social commerce strategies.Originality/valueThis study explains the underlying mechanism of brand hate through psychological reactance.

Extending psychological reactance theory to include denial of threat and media sharing intentions as freedom restoration behavior

ABSTRACT This study extends psychological reactance theory by examining denial of a public health threat and resistance toward media sharing as two novel types of freedom restoration. Participants (N = 220) were randomly assigned to watch a video advocating COVID-19 guidelines and completed an online survey assessing corresponding perceptions and behavioral intentions. Results of structural equation modeling supported the two-step model of reactance: greater perceived freedom threat was related to greater reactance, which in turn was linked to lower intentions to comply with COVID-19 guidelines, lower intentions to share the video with one’s online social network, and greater denial of COVID-19 as a public health threat. Implications for psychological reactance theory and health campaign design are discussed.

Are some narratives better than others?: The impact of different narrative forms on adolescents' intentions to text and drive.

Psychological reactance theory posits individuals seek to restore freedom when threatened. Communication scholars have hypothesized persuasive messages can constitute threats to freedom. The current study engages questions about the potential for different forms of narratives in public service announcements (PSAs) to trigger freedom threats by examining responses to a PSA campaign that utilized three forms of narrative (celebrity testimonials, peer testimonials, and accident stories) to decrease adolescent texting and driving intentions. Participants (N=214) watched anti-texting and driving narratives, and completed measures of threat to freedom, anger, negative cognition, and attitudes/intentions toward texting/driving. Compared to celebrity/peer testimonial PSAs, accident stories triggered increased anger and, indirectly, decreased intentions to drive safely. The results also suggest the need for continued examination of the best way to model psychological reactance theory, and the value of further research explicating anger as a mechanism of message effects.

Meat Me Halfway: Sydney Meat-Loving Men’s Restaurant Experience with Alternative Plant-Based Proteins

Within the theoretical framework of psychological reactance and impression management, this study conducted in Sydney, Australia, in 2020–2021, explores the acceptance by men of alternatives to animal-based foods. Qualitative in-depth interviews were conducted with 36 men who have visited a vegan restaurant and have eaten a plant-based burger. The findings from the study show that, despite the increasing popularity of these novel food options, men are unlikely to include the plant-based alternatives as a permanent feature of their diets as explained by the theory of psychological reactance. However, the study’s male participants acknowledged the importance of women for their visit to the vegan restaurant which can be explained by impression management theory. Using excerpts from the interviews, men’s experience is highlighted, particularly as it relates to concerns linked to masculinity, dietary identity and social perception by others. The analysis reveals the complexity of transitioning to more sustainable food choices within a gender-constructed social environment. Whether the new plant-based alternatives to meat are going to be a short-lived trend or a more lasting option in the men’s diets is also discussed. Practical implications for social marketing as a tool to influence collective behaviour are drawn. They emphasise the role of women, changing social perceptions and transparency about the new plant-based products.

Effects of Threatening Government Communication about COVID-19 on Health Protection Measures

The COVID-19 pandemic is one of the biggest crises of the 21st century. This paper investigates the role of reactance-based perceptions of threatening government communication on (1) attitudinal outcomes regarding acceptance of the COVID-19 health protection measures and (2) behavioral outcomes regarding adherence to the COVID-19 measures. From a theoretical perspective, reactance theory suggests that subjectively detecting (a) one-sidedness, (b) fear appeals, (c) discreditation, and (d) overload in government communication might lead to less acceptance and adherence of the health protective measures. Using an Austrian two-wave panel survey (N = 911) collected in August and October 2020, the hereby proposed main effects were supported by applying a Structural Equation Model (SEM). This emphasizes the importance of sensitive government health communication in order to avoid reactant attitudes and behavior, since acceptance and adherence to the COVID-19 measures help combat this pandemic and can possibly decrease fatality rates. Further implications are discussed.

The Impact of Behavioral Topic on Psychological Reactance: Arousal and Freedom Restoration

ABSTRACT Psychological reactance theory (PRT) proposes that the importance of freedom, along with threat to freedom and receiver personality trait, impacts the arousal of psychological reactance and the subsequent freedom restoration. This paper presents a 2 (threat: low vs. high) × 3 (source: the CDC, victim of the health issue vs. AI) × 2 (health topic: college drinking vs. STD) between-subjects experiment (N = 765) to test the potential effects of topic and source legitimacy on reactance. Results showed that behavioral topic influenced the magnitude of psychological reactance and forms of freedom restoration simultaneously. Theoretical contributions, implications, and limitations are discussed.

Abusive Supervision and Its Impact on Knowledge Hiding Behavior Among Sales Force.

The purpose of this study is to test the relationship between abusive supervision and employee’s knowledge hiding behavior (evasive hiding, playing dumb, rationalized hiding) among sales force of insurance companies in Pakistan. The paper also strives to theoretically discuss and then seek empirical evidence to the mediational paths of psychological contract breach that explain the focal relationship between abusive supervision and knowledge hiding. To test the proposed hypotheses, the study draws cross-sectional data from sales force of insurance companies working in Pakistan. Data were collected through structured questionnaire and using convenient sampling technique. The final sample of 340 valid and complete responses analyzed using structured equation modeling (partial least square) approach. Results showed that abusive supervision is positively related to employee’s knowledge hiding behaviors. Also, mediating variable psychological contract breach partially mediates the abusive supervision-knowledge hiding behavior linkage. Current study has tested the positive relationship between abusive supervision and knowledge hiding behaviors unlike most of the previous investigations that have focused on knowledge sharing behavior. The study also empirically investigated the mediational route of psychological contract breach, that explains the blame attributed by the beleaguered employee that led to covert retaliatory behavior, such as knowledge hiding. This paper contributes to knowledge hiding literature which is an important part of knowledge management from the perspective of abusive supervision based on both reactance theory and SET theory.

We're all in this together: Focus on community attenuates effects of pandemic-related financial hardship on reactance to COVID-19 public health regulations.

There has been resistance to COVID-19 public health restrictions partly due to changes and reductions in work, resulting in financial stress. Psychological reactance theory posits that such restrictions to personal freedoms result in anger, defiance, and motivation to restore freedom. In an online study (N = 301), we manipulated the target of COVID-19 restrictions as impacting self or community. We hypothesized that (a) greater pandemic-related financial stress would predict greater reactance, (b) the self-focused restriction condition would elicit greater reactance than the community-focused restriction condition, (c) reactance would be greatest for financially-stressed individuals in the self-focused condition, and (d) greater reactance would predict lower adherence to social distancing guidelines. Independent of political orientation and sense of community, greater financial stress predicted greater reactance only in the self-focused condition; the community-focused condition attenuated this association. Additionally, greater reactance was associated with lower social distancing behavior. These findings suggest that economic hardship exacerbates negative responses to continued personal freedom loss. Community-focused COVID-19 health messaging may be better received during continued pandemic conditions.

Households' intentions under financial vulnerability conditions: is it likely for the COVID-19 pandemic to leave a permanent scar?

PurposeThe authors draw on psychological reactance theory, collective mental programming, psychological profiles and financial vulnerability experiences to assess the possibility that the pandemic may induce transformative changes in households' behavioral intentions related to financial decisions after the pandemic is over.Design/methodology/approachUsing a unique survey data drawn from four different countries located in North America, Europe, Africa and Latin America, the authors show that the stressful conditions that accompanied the pandemic have instigated a state of financial vulnerability and stimulated instinctual defensive mechanisms among consumers.FindingsThe study results indicate that households have intentions to make defensive decisions in spending, consumption, planning and investment. Furthermore, the authors report evidence that personal psychological heterogeneity (as an individual factor) and collective mental programming (as a cultural factor) play a significant role in shaping households' postpandemic financial intentions.Research limitations/implicationsThe study findings carry important practical implications. For financial institutions, marketers and financial advisors, the authors’ work implies that individual and collective factors affect people's perception and behavioral intentions in response to financial adversities. For social planners and legislators, the authors’ work shows that they should expect not only short-term but also long-term reactions to the COVID-19 pandemic.Originality/valueMost research on the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on households' financial behavior focuses on transitional adjustments made during the pandemic, and little emphasis has been placed on potential postpandemic adjustments. The authors contend that it would be a mistake to analyze the pandemic-induced crisis as a temporary financial hardship.

Neural Responses to Mandatory and Voluntary Donation Impact Charitable Giving Decisions: An Event-Related Potentials Study.

The present study aimed to explore the influence of donation amounts on donation decisions in different donation contexts and to reveal the psychological mechanisms. Furthermore, we focused on how to enhance individuals’ intention to donate voluntarily. We designed an experiment on donation decisions, employing event-related potentials (ERPs) to probe the effect of psychological mechanisms on donation decisions by detecting the neural basis of donation decision-making. Based on S-O-R (stimulus-organism-response) theory, we used donation contexts and donation amounts (stimuli) to induce psychological activity in the participants (organism) and then influence individual donation decision behaviors (response). Moreover, we applied psychological reactance (PR) theory to discuss the effect of donation context on decisions and the corresponding psychological process. The behavioral results showed that donation contexts (mandatory vs. voluntary) were significantly related to the donation amounts (i.e., less vs. more money that the charity received than money that the participants donated). At the ERP level, compared with mandatory donation, voluntary donation evoked a larger P2 amplitude when the charity received less money. In addition, a larger mean amplitude of LPP was elicited by voluntary donation compared to mandatory donation. This study provides practical implications for charity organizers to guide people to donate voluntarily.

Reactance to Healthy Eating and Physical Activity Messages: Face Threat and Face Management Strategies in Memorable Daily Conversations Among Couples

ABSTRACT Most adults in the United States (U.S.) fail to meet guidelines for physical activity (PA) and nutrition outlined by the Centers for Disease Control. One important predictor of engagement in healthy behavior is support from one’s romantic partner. However, messages from partners may fail to motivate healthy behavior if they threaten recipients’ face and cause reactance. The present study examines face-threatening acts (FTAs) and face management strategies (FMSs) in conversations between romantic couples and their associations with reactance, healthy eating, and PA behaviors. Cohabitating couples (N = 70) were recruited, and one member of the couple completed a 10-day diary survey in which they reported on daily memorable conversations they had with their partner about PA and/or healthy eating. Participants completed measures of positive and negative face threat, as well as the extent to which they engaged in healthy eating and PA that day. Trained raters assessed reported conversations for positive and negative face threat as well as positive and negative FMSs. Results indicate that both participant and trained raters’ reports of positive face threat were associated with increased reactance, whereas only participants’ reports of negative face threat were associated with increased reactance. Both positive and negative FMSs were associated with reduced reactance. Reactance was negatively associated with healthy eating and PA. Results are discussed in terms of implications for reactance and politeness theories, as well as pragmatic implications for the millions of partnered individuals in the U.S. seeking to improve their health.

Lightening the dark side of customer participation – The mitigating role of relationship performance in business-to-business project contexts

Customer participation offers significant opportunities for B2B suppliers in contexts where parties interact over an extended period of time. However, a growing body of research highlights concerns about the darker side of customer participation.Integrating literature on the dark side, reactance theory, and social exchange, this research contends that suppliers aim to preserve their autonomy. The authors forward a conceptual framework examining the effects of customer participation on two types of supplier commitment. A survey of 105 managers of business and industrial projects suggests that customer participation reduces suppliers’ affective and calculative commitment. Furthermore, relationship performance positively moderates the negative effect of customer participation on calculative commitment thereby alleviating the detrimental effects of customer participation. The present research advances the literature by highlighting the potential of relational approaches in lightening the dark side of customer participation and mitigating its possible detrimental effects.

Trust in Science, Perceived Media Exaggeration About COVID-19, and Social Distancing Behavior.

For many individuals, the media function as a primary source of information about preventative measures to combat COVID-19. However, a considerable number of citizens believe that the media coverage about pandemics is exaggerated. Although the perception of media exaggeration may be highly consequential for individual health behaviors, we lack research on the drivers and consequences of this perception. In a two-wave panel study, we examined associations between trust in science, perceptions of media exaggeration about COVID-19, and social distancing behavior during the lockdown in Austria (NT2 = 416). Results showed that trust in science at T1 led to less perceptions of media exaggeration about COVID-19 at T2. Furthermore, consistent with the theory of psychological reactance, perceptions of media exaggeration about COVID-19 at T1 caused less social distancing behavior at T2. Thus, findings suggest that trust in science may positively affect individuals' social distancing behavior by decreasing perceived media exaggeration about COVID-19 over time. Implications for research on media effects in times of COVID-19 and conclusions for journalists are discussed.

Can you represent me? The influence of consumers' self-congruity on their brand loyalty behavior

PurposeThis study aimed to verify the impact of consumers' self-congruity on brand loyalty behavior when stock-out happens; the role of the psychological reactance theory as a mediator was assessed.Design/methodology/approachData collection was carried out in the form of a questionnaire survey. Data from 417 respondents were analyzed, and structural equation modeling was applied to test the hypotheses.FindingsThe findings revealed the positive significant impact of consumers' self-congruity on their brand loyalty behavior, and the mediating effect of psychological reactance between self-congruity and consumers' brand loyalty behavior.Practical implicationsThis study offers retailers/brand owners a deeper understanding of the remedy strategy needed to reduce the sales loss in their firms when stock-out happens.Originality/valueThis study provides a theoretical and empirical test on the influence of consumers' self-congruity on their brand loyalty behavior, bringing consumers' psychological reactance into the research as a mediating factor, thereby enriching the existing research on consumers' out-of-stock reactions.

Resisting Privilege: Effects of a White Privilege Message Intervention and Conservative Media Use on Freedom Threat and Racial Attitudes

ABSTRACT Identifying ways to effectively communicate about racial/ethnic disparities is a place where communication scholars can make vital contributions. Yet, existing studies on this subject are scarce. Borrowing from reactance theory and the 3D model of White identity management, the present study tested whether exposing White adults to White privilege messaging helps them to become more aware or deny racial privilege. The results of our experiment revealed that there was a main effect for reading about racial privilege and increased awareness of privilege. However, in keeping with reactance theory, if the message stoked a perceived threat to freedom, message exposure resulted in the denial of both blatant and institutional racism. We also found a moderating role for Fox News viewing such that awareness of racial privilege was not affected by the intervention for heavy Fox News viewers, but it was for low Fox News viewers. We conclude that messages focused on explaining White privilege are promising, but there are risks.

Consumer communications and current events: a cross-cultural study of the change in consumer response to company social media posts due to the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has changed the lives of consumers in virtually every nation. Based upon the theory of psychological reactance and psychoevolutionary theory of emotion, we hypothesize how such lifestyle changes affect consumers perceiving and responding to companies' communications messages. The theories also suggest that consumers in different cultures may respond to COVID-19 differently. To test our hypotheses, we implemented a Python scraper to collect companies’ Instagram posts pre- and during the COVID-19 lockdown. A machine learning algorithm was applied on the collected post photos to automatically identify certain photo characteristics, such as indoor versus outdoor, and with a single person versus many people; a text mining and sentiment analysis was implemented on the collected post captions to identify the salient emotion each caption exhibited, such as joy and anticipation. After that, we conducted a regression discontinuity analysis of photo characteristics or caption emotion on number of likes or comments to identify consumers’ response change due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The estimation results supported our hypotheses and suggested tactics that could improve consumer communications effectiveness in this changed time. Viewing COVID-19 as an example of a current event in the ever-changing world, this paper suggests that such events could impact consumer response and behavior, and that companies’ marketing and advertising strategies should be responsive to such events.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1057/s41270-021-00138-3.

Would you like to add a gratuity? When explicit requests hamper tipping

Many service providers explicitly ask customers for a tip. This may create social pressure, thus resulting in lower tips. Building on the theory of psychological reactance, we propose that an explicit request to tip has a detrimental impact on tip size. Across two studies, a field experiment and an online experiment, we test this effect and examine how the physical presence of the server moderates this relationship. We find that an explicit request to tip negatively affects tip size, while server’s physical presence alleviates this effect. The findings also show that social pressure hampers perceived control, which in turn has a detrimental effect on tip size. In light of these findings, service providers might want to revisit their strategies to enhance tipping.

Do Descriptive Norm Appeals in Public Service Ads Reduce Freedom Threats? Examining the Effects of Normative Messages and Media Literacy Skills on Decreasing Reactance

ABSTRACT While health communication campaigns seek to encourage and promote healthy behaviors, they are not always successful. Health communication efforts may fail for several reasons, such as viewers experiencing excessive freedom threats and reactance. This study (n = 201) proposes and demonstrates that descriptive norm appeals in health PSAs can indirectly lead to enhanced behavioral intentions toward the message advocacy via reducing perceived freedom threats, inhibiting psychological reactance, and improving message credibility. However, this serial mediation was only found for message viewers with relatively low media literacy skills – precisely, who did not show considerable critical thinking toward media content. For participants who reported a high level of critical thinking toward media content, the use of descriptive norm appeals did not decrease freedom threats, nor did it indirectly affect behavioral intentions. The findings of this study contribute to the theory of psychological reactance and norms-based research. Both theoretical and practical implications are provided for health communication scholars and practitioners.

Romantic Partner Interference and Psychological Reactance in the Context of Caregiving for an Aging Family Member

Negotiating romantic relational dynamics is inherent to family caregiving situations, which continue to be on the rise in the United States. However, despite evidence that family caregiving duties are linked to a variety of negative relational outcomes, limited research examines communication processes that contribute to or alleviate the burden of caregiver duties on romantic relationships. Guided by psychological reactance theory (PRT), this study examined the link between romantic partner interference with family caregiving duties and the reactance process, as well as directness of communication about irritation as a type of freedom restoration behavior associated with reactance. Adults caring for aging family members recruited from MTurk ( N = 187) completed an online survey as part of a larger study of romantic partner communication surrounding family caregiving. Results using PROCESS serial mediation indicated that greater partner interference was related to heightened perceptions of freedom threat, which was positively associated with the experience of reactance, which in turn was associated with communication about irritation. However, the association between reactance and directness of communication about irritation was negative, the opposite direction of what was hypothesized. Implications for PRT and interventions with caregivers and their romantic partners are discussed.