Rayleigh Line Research Articles

Research on the Combustion Mode and Thrust Performance of Rotating Detonation Scrarmjet Engines

Decades of research in hypersonic science and engineering have shown that scramjet engines are the preferred choice for powering hypersonic vehicles. In these engines, oblique shock combustion and rotating detonation combustion are two common combustion modes. This article primarily focuses on the numerical simulation and theoretical analysis of these two combustion modes. The research indicates that as the combustible mixture injected into the combustion chamber increases, the combustion mode transitions from deflagration combustion to self-sustaining detonation combustion and then to forced detonation combustion to maintain stable combustion in the chamber. Under self-sustaining detonation combustion mode, as the amount of combustible mixture injected into the chamber increases, the number of detonation waves gradually increases from one to multiple and the angle between the detonation waves and the inflow changes from acute to right angles. In the forced detonation combustion mode, the minimum shock wave intensity required to initiate detonation combustion can be obtained by drawing a tangent from the Rayleigh line. The structure generating oblique shock waves in the combustion chamber needs to match the shock wave intensity. In the detonation combustion mode, both the exit total temperature and specific impulse of the combustion chamber increase with the increase in Mach number at the inlet, while the pressure ratio decreases. This article provides a reference for the design of the combustion chamber in supersonic combustion ramjet engines.

Polaron Vibronic Progression Shapes the Optical Response of 2D Perovskites.

The optical response of 2D layered perovskites is composed of multiple equally-spaced spectral features, often interpreted as phonon replicas, separated by an energy Δ ≃ 12 - 40meV, depending upon the compound. Here the authors show that the characteristic energy spacing, seen in both absorption and emission, is correlated with a substantial scattering response above ≃200cm-1 (≃25meV) observed in resonant Raman. This peculiar high-frequency signal, which dominates both Stokes and anti-Stokes regions of the scattering spectra, possesses the characteristic spectral fingerprints of polarons. Notably, its spectral position is shifted away from the Rayleigh line, with a tail on the high energy side. The internal structure of the polaron consists of a series of equidistant signals separated by 25-32cm-1 (3-4meV), depending upon the compound, forming a polaron vibronic progression. The observed progression is characterized by a large Huang-Rhys factor (S >6) for all of the 2D layered perovskites investigated here, indicative of a strong charge carrier - lattice coupling. The polaron binding energy spans a range ≃20-35meV, which is corroborated by the temperature-dependent Raman scattering data. The investigation provides a complete understanding of the optical response of 2D layered perovskites via the direct observation of polaron vibronic progression. The understanding of polaronic effects in perovskites is essential, as it directly influences the suitability of these materials for future opto-electronicapplications.

Systematic analysis of the Rayleigh–Wood anomalies and the symmetry relations of 2D‐periodic nanostructures by imaging spectroscopic ellipsometry

AbstractPeriodic arrays of metallic nanostructures were fabricated by electron beam lithography and studied by means of spectroscopic imaging ellipsometry in the near infrared to ultraviolet spectral ranges. The sample consists of gold nanodisc and nanorod gratings on a silicon substrate. Spectroscopic imaging ellipsometry, allowing for the simultaneous observation of all gratings with microscopic resolution, was used to systematically analyze the varying grating and nanostructure parameters. The ellipsometric spectra obtained for a full in‐plane sample rotation proved to be a highly sensitive measure of the gratings’ Rayleigh–Wood anomalies. Their dependence on the sample azimuth was in excellent agreement with the Rayleigh lines calculated from the grating parameters and could be tracked for both the ambient‐to‐grating and the grating–substrate interfaces. Contrary to other studies on similarly sized nanoparticle arrays, we found no indication of localized plasmon resonance in the visible range of the spectrum, but only a weak NIR response truncated by the Rayleigh lines. Finally, the symmetry of the structures was investigated by imaging Mueller‐matrix measurements.

Modified Landau–Placzek ratio of the liquid metal rubidium beyond hydrodynamics

The intensity ratio of the Rayleigh line and the Brillouin lines can be derived within hydrodynamics and is known as the Landau–Placzek (LP) ratio. This ratio is directly related to the ratio of specific heats of the fluid. Within the microscopic wave vector range, which can be probed by inelastic neutron scattering, the intensity ratio for simple liquid metals deviates distinctly from the hydrodynamic prediction of the LP-ratio. We derive the intensity ratio from experimental data of liquid rubidium, which shows an enhanced LP-ratio by a factor 8 compared to the hydrodynamic prediction. This strong deviation indicates a further relaxation process in the microscopic wave vector range beyond hydrodynamics. That relaxation process is the viscoelastic reaction of the simple liquid to density fluctuations. Taking this process into account a modified LP-ratio is able to describe the data quite well.

Observations on the fourth-power scaling of high-pressure shock waves in solids

This paper is concerned with the bounds and approximations that are found in the original derivation of the fourth-power scaling of shock waves in solids [D. Grady, Appl. Phys. Lett. 38, 825 (1981)]. The analysis is focused on the framework of the derivation and is independent of constitutive assumption, such as visco-plastic behavior. Results include an upper bound for the shock pressure and a restriction on the range of power coefficient for materials having a power-type function for the shock velocity–particle velocity relation. Relaxation of this restriction is proposed based on the idea that the rise time along the Rayleigh line is strain dependent. The idea led to the application of the Onsager relation to strain rate calculation that in turn resulted in a quadratic function for the strain rate–shock pressure relation. The fourth-power relation is obtained by generalizing the Onsager relation through the introduction of a quadratic dissipative potential in analogy to Rayleigh's dissipative potential.

Overdriven detonation

Shock pressure of overdriven detonation is above the CJ pressure. We use here our reactive flow model TDRR (=Temperature Dependent Reaction Rate) to calculate examples of overdriven detonation, including details of the reaction zone. The explosive is PBX-9502, and the detonation shock pressure for different examples is below and above the intersection pressure of the reactant and products Hugoniot curves. We find that: 1) below that intersection, as well as above it, the reaction zone is on the corresponding Rayleigh line, like for a CJ detonation; 2) below the intersection, pressure decreases along the reaction zone, as for a CJ detonation, but above the intersection, pressure increases along the reaction zone; 3) for a shock pressure above the intersection point, the reaction zone is continuous, smooth, and without any peculiarities.

Shocked ceramics melt: An atomistic analysis of thermodynamic behavior of boron carbide

Macroscale experiments for structural response of materials often do not capture deformation features at the atomistic scale. This limitation becomes more pronounced in materials subjected to shock loading, especially in covalently bonded ceramics such as boron carbide, which exhibit a deleterious mechanism called pressure-induced amorphization. Perhaps because ceramics have high thermal resistance, temperature was never considered a prime factor influencing deformation mechanisms, leaving such phenomena unexplained for more than two decades. In this article, we probe fundamental material behavior using molecular dynamics (MD) to link nanoscale thermodynamics to amorphization during shock loading. We have generated Rayleigh lines via MD shock simulations, subsequently constructing the shock Hugoniot, which aligns well with experimental data. We estimate shock-induced temperature in ceramics to be well above their melting point, resolving a plethora of interconnected scientific issues pertaining to anomalous behavior of boron carbide.

The dependence of Ammonal detonation performance on cylinder test scale

For a detonation to propagate steadily, the lead shock must be supported by energy release from the chemical reaction zone. Flow divergence cools the flow behind the compression shock, slowing chemical reactions and reducing the available energy to drive the detonation forward. This results in the diameter effect and eventually detonation failure as charge size is reduced. Similarly, the energy available to perform work on adjacent materials in the product flow tends to decrease with charge size. The performance of non-ideal explosives such as ammonium nitrate blended with aluminum powder (Ammonal) are particularly sensitive to flow divergence. In this study, the effect of flow divergence on Ammonal performance is investigated through application of an analytic method to analyze cylinder expansion (CYLEX) test wall velocity profiles for tests with inner diameters of 12.7 mm up to 76.2 mm. For these tests, the detonation velocity, detonation product isentropes, and heat of detonation are reported. In addition, analysis of the velocity profiles is shown to reveal an experimental measurement of the Rayleigh line, which agrees well with the theoretical Rayleigh line for all experiments. Reaction zone times are inferred using this feature.

Optical response of rectangular array of elliptical plasmonic particles on glass revealed by Mueller matrix ellipsometry and finite element modeling

We report here on the optical response of elliptical gold particles arranged in a rectangular lattice on glass and probed at non-normal incidence in reflection using spectroscopic Mueller matrix ellipsometry in the energy range 0.73–5.9 eV. The surface plasmon resonances, reshaped near the Rayleigh anomalies, are mapped out by full azimuthal rotation of the sample. The experimental Mueller matrices are discussed, and interpretation is supported by finite element modeling of the Mueller–Jones matrix elements, which allows for identification of the dipolar and multipolar responses observed in the experimental spectra. The data show a strong polarization conversion around the surface plasmon resonances as a function of the azimuthal angle of incidence, also reshaped near the Rayleigh lines. An effective strong circular diattenuation is observed from the recorded Mueller matrix. We further argue the importance of Mueller matrix ellipsometry for metrology in the manufacture of metasurfaces, for understanding the effect of the lattice in metasurface design, and finally in validating computational methods.

Subcritical transition to turbulence in accretion disc boundary layer

Context. Enhanced angular momentum transfer through the boundary layer near the surface of weakly magnetised accreting star is required in order to explain the observed accretion timescales in low-mass X-ray binaries, cataclysmic variables, or young stars with massive protoplanetary discs. The accretion disc boundary layer is locally represented by incompressible homogeneous and boundless flow of the cyclonic type, which is linearly stable. Its non-linear instability at the shear rates of the order of the rotational frequency remains an issue. Aims. We put forward a conjecture that hydrodynamical subcritical turbulence in such a flow is sustained by the non-linear feedback from essentially three-dimensional vortices, which are generated by quasi-two-dimensional trailing shearing spirals grown to high amplitude via the swing amplification. We refer to those three-dimensional vortices as cross-rolls, since they are aligned in the shearwise direction in contrast to streamwise rolls generated by the anti-lift-up mechanism in rotating shear flow on the Rayleigh line. Methods. Transient growth of cross-rolls is studied analytically and further confronted with direct numerical simulations (DNS) of the dynamics of non-linear perturbations in the shearing box approximation. Results. A substantial decrease of transition Reynolds number RT is revealed as one changes a cubic box to a tall box. DNS performed in a tall box show that RT as a function of shear rate accords with the line of constant maximum transient growth of cross-rolls. The transition in the tall box has been observed until the shear rate is three times higher than the rotational frequency, when RT ∼ 50 000. Conclusions. Assuming that the cross-rolls are also responsible for turbulence in the Keplerian flow, we estimate R T ≲ 108 in this case. Our results imply that non-linear stability of Keplerian flow should be verified by extending turbulent solutions found in the cyclonic regime across the solid-body line rather than entering a quasi-Keplerian regime from the side of the Rayleigh line. The most favourable shear rate to test the existence of turbulence in the quasi-Keplerian regime may be sub-Keplerian and equal approximately to 1/2.

Quasi-Elastic Light Scattering in Congruent Lithium Niobate Crystals

Raman scattering spectra in the frequency range of 5–75 cm–1 in lithium niobate samples with various structural imperfections were obtained. It is shown that the intensity of quasi-elastic light scattering on the wing of the Rayleigh line demonstrates an exponential dependence on the concentration of large-scale defects in the samples. Calibration curves for the intensity of quasi-elastic scattering dependence at low frequencies on the acoustic quality factor are constructed.

Phase transition and dynamics of iron under ramp wave compression

The ramp wave compression experiments of iron with different thicknesses were performed on the magnetically driven ramp loading device CQ-4. Numerical simulations of this process were done with Hayes multi-phase equation of state (H-MEOS) and dynamic equations of phase transition. The calculated results of H-MEOS are in good agreement with those of shock phase transition, but are different from those under ramp wave compression. The reason for this is that the bulk modulus of the material in the Hayes model and the wave velocity are considered constant. Shock compression is a jump from the initial state to the final state, and the sound speed is related to the slope of the Rayleigh line. However, ramp compression is a continuous process, and the bulk modulus is no longer a constant but a function of pressure and temperature. Based on Murnaghan equation of state, the first-order correction of the bulk modulus on pressure in the Hayes model was carried out. The numerical results of the corrected H-MEOS agree well with those of pure iron in both ramp and shock compression phase transition experiments. The calculated results show that the relaxation time of iron is about 30 ns and the phase transition pressure is about 13 GPa. There are obvious differences between the isentropic and adiabatic process in terms of pressure–specific volume and temperature–pressure. The fluctuation of the sound speed after 13 GPa is caused by the phase transition.

HPC simulations of shock front evolution for a study of the shock precursor decay in a submicron thick nanocrystalline aluminum

The Hugoniot elastic limit (HEL, or the shock precursor) decay phenomenon was investigated under an uniaxial strain condition, in a plate-on-plate impact configuration, using large-scale molecular dynamics (MD) high performance computing (HPC) simulations on a multi-billion 5000 Å thick nanocrystalline aluminum (nc-Al) system with an average grain size of 1000 Å and at five impact velocities ranging from 0.7 to 1.5 km s−1. The averaged stress and strain distributions were obtained in the shock fronts’ travel direction using a material conserving atom slicing method. The loading paths in terms of the Rayleigh lines experienced by the atom system in the evolving shock fronts exhibited a strong dependency on the shock stress levels. This dependency decreased as the impact velocity increased from 0.7 to 1.5 km s−1. By combining the HELs from MD results with plate impact experimental data, the precursor decay for the nc-Al was predicted from nano-to-macro scale thickness range. The evolving shock fronts were characterized in terms of parameters such as the shock front thickness, shock rise time and strain rate. The MD results were further analyzed using a crystal analysis algorithm and a twin dislocation identification method to obtain the densities of the atomistic defects evolving behind the evolving shock fronts. High-fidelity large-scale HPC simulation results showed that certain dislocation partials strongly influenced the elastic–plastic transition response across the HELs. The twinning dislocations increased by more than a factor of 10 during the transition and remained constant under further shock compression.

Frequency up-shift in the stimulated thermal scattering under two-photon absorption in liquids and colloids of metal nanoparticles

We report the results of the experimental and theoretical study of stimulated temperature scattering in toluene and hexane solutions of Ag-nanoparticles, as well as in pure toluene in the two-photon absorption regime. A four-wave mixing scheme with two counter-propagating pump waves of the same frequency is utilised to demonstrate the lasing effect and the amplification of the backscattered anti-Stokes signal. For the first time, we have measured anti-Stokes spectral shifts which turn out to appreciably exceed the Rayleigh line widths in those liquids. It is shown that the amplification effect is provided predominantly by thermally induced coherent polarisation oscillations, while the dynamic interference temperature grating causes the formation of a self-induced optical cavity inside the interaction region.

Spectral shifts of stimulated Rayleigh–Mie scattering in Ag nanoparticle colloids

Stimulated Rayleigh-Mie scattering (SRMS) in two-photon absorption liquids is realized by a Fourier-transform-limited pulsed Nd-glass laser. For the first time, to the best of our knowledge, we have measured anti-Stokes spectral shifts of SRMS in toluene and hexane colloids of Ag nanoparticles, as well as in pure toluene. These values appreciably exceed the Rayleigh line width in those liquids. The four-wave mixing method is applied both experimentally and theoretically to display the process as Rayleigh-induced parametric generation. We show that the amplification effect is provided predominantly by thermally induced coherent polarization oscillations, while an interference-assisted thermal grating provides formation of a self-induced optical cavity inside the interaction region.

Low-Frequency Shear and Layer-Breathing Modes in Raman Scattering of Two-Dimensional Materials

Ever since the isolation of single-layer graphene in 2004, two-dimensional layered structures have been among the most extensively studied classes of materials. To date, the pool of two-dimensional materials (2DMs) continues to grow at an accelerated pace and already covers an extensive range of fascinating and technologically relevant properties. An array of experimental techniques have been developed and used to characterize and understand these properties. In particular, Raman spectroscopy has proven to be a key experimental technique, thanks to its capability to identify minute structural and electronic effects in nondestructive measurements. While high-frequency (HF) intralayer Raman modes have been extensively employed for 2DMs, recent experimental and theoretical progress has demonstrated that low-frequency (LF) interlayer Raman modes are more effective at determining layer numbers and stacking configurations and provide a unique opportunity to study interlayer coupling. These advantages are due to 2DMs' unique interlayer vibration patterns where each layer behaves as an almost rigidly moving object with restoring forces corresponding to weak interlayer interactions. Compared to HF Raman modes, the relatively small attention originally devoted to LF Raman modes is largely due to their weaker signal and their proximity to the strong Rayleigh line background, which previously made their detection challenging. Recent progress in Raman spectroscopy with technical and hardware upgrades now makes it possible to probe LF modes with a standard single-stage Raman system and has proven crucial to characterize and understand properties of 2DMs. Here, we present a comprehensive and forward-looking review on the current status of exploiting LF Raman modes of 2DMs from both experimental and theoretical perspectives, revealing the fundamental physics and technological significance of LF Raman modes in advancing the field of 2DMs. We review a broad array of materials, with varying thickness and stacking configurations, discuss the effect of in-plane anisotropy, and present a generalized linear chain model and interlayer bond polarizability model to rationalize the experimental findings. We also discuss the instrumental improvements of Raman spectroscopy to enhance and separate LF Raman signals from the Rayleigh line. Finally, we highlight the opportunities and challenges ahead in this fast-developing field.

Transport Properties of the Azimuthal Magnetorotational Instability

Abstract The magnetorotational instability (MRI) is thought to be a powerful source of turbulence in Keplerian accretion disks. Motivated by recent laboratory experiments, we study the MRI driven by an azimuthal magnetic field in an electrically conducting fluid sheared between two concentric rotating cylinders. By adjusting the rotation rates of the cylinders, we approximate angular velocity profiles . We perform direct numerical simulations of a steep profile close to the Rayleigh line and a quasi-Keplerian profile and cover wide ranges of Reynolds ( ) and magnetic Prandtl numbers ( ). In the quasi-Keplerian case, the onset of instability depends on the magnetic Reynolds number, with , and angular momentum transport scales as in the turbulent regime. The ratio of Maxwell to Reynolds stresses is set by Rm. At the onset of instability both stresses have similar magnitude, whereas the Reynolds stress vanishes or becomes even negative as Rm increases. For the profile close to the Rayleigh line, the instability shares these properties as long as but exhibits a markedly different character if , where the onset of instability is governed by the Reynolds number, with , and transport is via Reynolds stresses and scales as Re2. At intermediate Pm = 0.01 we observe a continuous transition from one regime to the other, with a crossover at . Our results give a comprehensive picture of angular momentum transport of the MRI with an imposed azimuthal field.

Promoting Intra- and Intermolecular Interactions in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering.

Normal Raman and surface–enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) are powerful analytical methodologies that are complementary to infrared absorption spectroscopy and provide unique molecular fingerprint information. Vibrational energies detected using both techniques arise from quantized energy states associated with the vibrational and rotational motions of molecular bonds. If a molecule exhibits a bond strength, mass, and structure; characteristic energies will appear as vibrational energies shifted from the Rayleigh line in a Raman spectrum. Small changes in quantized energies can be related to polarizability changes that can occur in response to electromagnetic radiation, changes in the local environment, and/or intermolecular interactions.

Pulse Detonation Assessment for Alternative Fuels

The higher thermodynamic efficiency inherent in a detonation combustion based engine has already led to considerable interest in the development of wave rotor, pulse detonation, and rotating detonation engine configurations as alternative technologies offering improved performance for the next generation of aerospace propulsion systems, but it is now important to consider their emissions also. To assess both performance and emissions, this paper focuses on the feasibility of using alternative fuels in detonation combustion. Thus, the standard aviation fuels Jet-A, Acetylene, Jatropha Bio-synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene, Camelina Bio-synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene, Algal Biofuel, and Microalgae Biofuel are all asessed under detonation combustion conditions. An analytical model accounting for the Rankine-Hugoniot Equation, Rayleigh Line Equation, and Zel’dovich–von Neumann–Doering model, and taking into account single step chemistry and thermophysical properties for a stoichiometric mixture, is applied to a simple detonation tube test case configuration. The computed pressure rise and detonation velocity are shown to be in good agreement with published literature. Additional computations examine the effects of initial pressure, temperature, and mass flux on the physical properties of the flow. The results indicate that alternative fuels require higher initial mass flux and temperature to detonate. The benefits of alternative fuels appear significant.

Optical response of gold hemispheroidal lattices on transparent substrates

Square arrays of gold (Au) hemispheroids deposited on a UV-transparent glass substrate reveal a rich optical response when investigated by spectroscopic Mueller Matrix Ellipsometry. Two samples were studied; the first consisted of hemispheroids of parallel radius of 58nm and height 30nm with lattice constant 210nm; the corresponding parameters for the second sample were 38nm, 20nm and 125nm, respectively. By a full azimuthal rotation of the samples, we observe all the Rayleigh anomalies corresponding to grazing diffracted waves, with strong resonances for co-polarization scattered light near the high symmetry points and cross-polarization scattered light around the Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance. Polarization-conversion becomes particularly important at grazing incidence, and the cross-polarization follows the Rayleigh lines. The optical response (neglecting polarization conversion) is modelled in the quasi-static approximation using the so-called Bedeaux-Vlieger formalism, and the Finite Element Method using COMSOL. The direct inversion of the effective (substrate dependent) dielectric function is discussed.