Ray Height Research Articles

Anatomical and topochemical features of the genera Acacia, Acaciella, Senegalia and Vachellia

Summary Molecular research has shown that the genus Acacia is in fact polyphyletic. The discussion about grouping the species of Acacia s.l. into monophyletic genera kept two International Botanical Congresses (Congresses 17 and 18) occupied and resulted in the general acceptance of the genera Acacia, Acaciella, Mariosousa, Senegalia and Vachellia. This raises questions about whether the wood of these new genera can be distinguished using established wood identification methods. Anatomical features of members from Acacia, Acaciella, Senegalia and Vachellia were examined and compared using transmission light microscopy. Topochemical characteristics were investigated using UV microspectrophotometry (UMSP) to identify differences in the distribution of phenolic compounds and cell wall lignification. The current study shows that the presence as well as the arrangement and dimensions of the axial parenchyma, as well as the height and width of the wood rays and fibre dimensions allow anatomical differentiation of the species studied. UMSP revealed the presence and distribution of phenolic compounds and differences in the degree of lignification between the genera. The aim of this paper is to highlight the potential of the applied methods to differentiate between the genera.

Dendro-anatomical Study for Identification of Pine at Korea

This study identified Korean red pine (Pinus densiflora) and exotic pines (Pinus resinosa, Pinus sylvestris) with a similar anatomical structure using a dendro-anatomical method that applied dendrochronology, tracheid length, and uniseriate ray cell size. Korean red pine samples were collected from 13 national parks, while exotic pine samples were secured from two wood importers. Tracheid length was measured by distinguishing earlywood from latewood, and uniseriate ray height and cell number were determined. As the exotic pine tree-ring chronology was consistent with the foreign standard tree-ring chronology and displayed high statistical significance, the country and region where the pine samples had been felled and the exact felling date were confirmed. According to the results, which compared tracheid length and uniseriate ray size, no difference was observed between the Korean red and Russian pines. However, the tracheid length of the Russian pines turned out to be slightly longer than the length of the Korean red pine. Additional research securing a larger number of exotic pines (P.resinosa, P.sylvestris) is required to yield more accurate results in the future.

Microscopic distinction of wood between two Pinus species; P. Halepensis and P. Brutia

This research aims to develop a pine-wood identification methodology concerning Pinus halepensis (Aleppo pine) and Pinus brutia (Turkish pine), based on microscopic observations and anatomical features that could be used to identify and distinguish the above two species (in particular the dimensions of the rays). We concluded that the maximum ray height of the Pinus halepensis wood is lower than that of the Pinus brutia wood (18 vs. 26 cells respectively). The average ray height of Pinus halepensis wood is lower than that of the Pinus brutia wood. It’s the first attempt to identify these two different Pinus species.

Structural deviations in secondary phloem of young shoots of Spiraea beauverdiana near magma volcanoes

We performed a comparative analysis of the internal structure of the secondary phloem of one, two and three-year-old stems of Spiraea beauverdiana growing in extreme conditions of solfataric fields of Golovnin Volcano caldera and Mendeleyev Volcano and in normal conditions. The combination of environmental factors in conditions of solfataric activity, such as high temperatures in the soil and in the near-surface air, as well as saturation with gases toxic to plants, rare elements accumulating in the nearby substrate, and lack of soil moisture, interfere with normal phellogen and cambium activity. Deviations from the normal structure involve changes in the following parameters of the internal structure of a year-old stem of S. beauverdiana. Secondary phloem parameters in the studied habitats are normal, except for the length of the segments of sieve tubes, the height of single-row rays, the length of parenchymal girder; these are shorter in S. beauverdiana stems from volcanos. At two and three years of age in volcanic conditions we see reduction in the width of the secondary phloem (both conductive and non-conductive) and the diameter of the segments of sieve tubes. In samples from Golovnin Volcano we see reduction in tangential diameter, while in the samples from Mendeleyev Volcano it’s the radial diameter. We also see reduction in the height of multiple-row rays. At that age we see changes in the structure of the radial parenchyma; namely, we find no double-row rays in samples from Golovnin Volcano caldera. One of the signs of impact of volcanic activity on the bark structure is development of non-specific anomalies in the internal structure of the S. beauverdiana bark, namely, in the outer bark, or in deeper levels, such as the secondary phloem. That causes sclerification and dilatation of parenchyma, and multiple layers in some tissues.

Ray Traits of Juvenile Wood and Mature Wood: Pinus massonia and Cunninghamia lanceolata

Ray traits affect secondary xylem development and wood properties. Pinus massonia and Cunninghamia lanceolata, commercially important timber species, were chosen to study the differences in wood ray traits of juvenile versus mature wood. Seven ray traits, i.e., percentage of rays, ray spacing, ray number, uniseriate ray height, fusiform ray height, ray parenchyma cell length and ray tracheid length, as well as eight wood axial tissue traits, were investigated quantitatively. Intraspecific variations in ray traits and axial tissue traits between juvenile wood and mature wood were displayed in violin plots. The results showed that anatomical differences between juvenile wood and mature wood were significant for both ray traits and axial tissue traits. Juvenile wood generally possessed the larger percentage of rays, higher ray spacing and ray number, smaller ray height and shorter ray cells than mature wood. A positive correlation was present between the ray parenchyma cell length and ray tracheid length. Negative correlations of the ray number and ray spacing with uniseriate ray height were found. Additionally, the axial tracheid cell wall thickness all had Pearson’s correlations with ray spacing, ray number and ray parenchyma cell length.

Variation in morphological and wood cell traits in coppice stems of Populus nigra L. and Salix alba L.

Coppice management is an ecologically important silvicultural practice to provide the quicker and higher potential of wood biomass production for industrial demands. Understanding morphological and anatomical responses of coppiced trees could help to determine the quantity and quality of wood and thus provide better management of coppiced tree plantations for short-time biomass production. However, there is a little investigation in morphological and anatomical adaptation in different fast-growing tree species. The present study, therefore, studied how morphology and anatomy vary between two fast-growing coppices of Populus nigra L. (black poplar) and Salix alba L. (white willow). Each coppiced tree was grown in a similar habitat and was at a similar age. However, each coppiced tree showed different morphological and anatomical plasticity in their stems in response to environmental factors. Poplar coppices showed better anatomical properties due to greater vessel diameter, fibre length, fibre width, fibre wall thickness, and ray height; however willow coppices had better morphological plasticity which had higher average stem height and ring width. The results suggest that willow coppices had the greater height growth potential even at 2 years of age than poplar coppices.

New species of Protaxodioxylon (conifer wood) from the Middle Permian of the Metangula Graben (Niassa Province, Mozambique) and their implications

We describe for the first time in precise anatomical detail new occurrences of petrified woods in the K5 formation of the Metangula Graben (Niassa, northern Mozambique), pertaining to the Capitanian (mid Permian). The two new species of fossil wood are described from two very well-preserved specimens. The two new species, Protaxodioxylon verniersii sp. nov. and Protaxodioxylon metangulense sp. nov. are characterized by showing tracheids with mixed radial pitting and taxodioid pits in the cross-field, typical of the genus Protaxodioxylon. The specimens described are mostly distinguishable from other Protaxodioxylon species by the absence of axial parenchyma, the height of rays and the number of pits per cross-field. Protaxodioxylon species reported to date were mostly restricted to the Northern Hemisphere and to the late Mesozoic (Jurassic and Cretaceous). Surprisingly, however, this study infers that this fossil wood genus has a significantly longer time range than previously thought and underwent dispersal and diversification even earlier during the Palaeozoic. Additionally, both specimens display distinct growth rings indicating that the fossil woods grew in an environment controlled by seasonal variation with partial suspension of growth in times of less water availability and/or lower temperature. On the other hand, the occurrence of Protaxodioxylon suggest a humid temperate, warm subtropical climate condition during the Capitanian in the Metangula Graben.

ANATOMICAL RADIAL VARIATION AND DENSITY IN WOOD OF RUBBER TREE [Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.) Muell. Arg.] CLONES

The anatomical structure and physical properties of wood change signifcantly among trees of the same species and even among different parts of the same tree. However, studies that characterize radial variation of anatomical characteristics and wood density among clones are scarce, specifcally for the rubber tree [Hevea brasiliensis (Will. ex Adr. De Juss.) Muell]. Thus, the objective of the research was evaluating the anatomical radial variation and density in wood of Hevea brasiliensis clones. For this study, 30 trees, three of each progeny from 10 clones were used. For most clones, we noticed an increase in fber length and vessel diameter towards the bark. For vessel frequency, ray height, width and frequency, we observed a decrease towards the bark. Fiber wall thickness was the most distinctive anatomical characteristic, compared to the others, presenting a trend of thicker walls in the middle position, consequently infuencing basic density clones.

A more southerly occurrence of Xenoxylon in North America: X. utahense Xie et Gee sp. nov. from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation in Utah, USA, and its paleobiogeographic and paleoclimatic significance

Although Xenoxylon is a global genus of Mesozoic wood in the Northern Hemisphere, it is striking that the valid records in North America occur only in the northernmost parts of the continent. Decades ago, two species of Xenoxylon were described from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation in Utah, USA. However, a recent review of all North American reports of Xenoxylon excluded both species from the genus based on their anatomy, rendering all records of this genus south of Montana invalid in 2019. Here we describe a fossil log from the Morrison Formation near Vernal, northeastern Utah, USA, with true Xenoxylon anatomy with locally xenoxylean radial tracheid pitting and fenestriform crossfield pitting. Due to a novel combination of radial tracheid pitting, crossfield pitting and ray height, a new species, Xenoxylon utahense Xie et Gee sp. nov., is recognized here. Located at the southernmost occurrence of Xenoxylon in North America during the Mesozoic, this new species confirms that Xenoxylon trees were not only restricted to a circumpolar zone, but also grew in more southerly areas. In comparison with other fossil plants in the Morrison Formation of Utah, along with growth ring characteristics and climatic preferences of living conifers, the new fossil log with true growth rings with abundant, well-formed earlywood and extremely little latewood argues for a warm and humid climate with very mild seasonality for the Late Jurassic in this region, which is inconsistent with previous interpretations of Xenoxylon as a reliable indicator of cool climates.

The “Lianescent Vascular Syndrome” statistically supported in a comparative study of trees and lianas of Fabaceae subfamily Papilionoideae

Abstract Lianas are one of the most iconic elements of tropical forests and their presence is a major feature of these biomes. Here we aim to describe and compare the wood of key genera of Fabaceae subfamily Papilionoideae comprising both trees and lianas. Thirty-eight species from the genera Machaerium, Dalbergia, Clitoria and Dioclea were sampled to establish the main quantitative features that differentiate lianas and trees, the so-called “Lianescent Vascular Syndrome”. Variance analyses were carried out to diagnose the anatomical differences between trees and lianas. Whereas most studies focused on qualitative features, this study focused on a statistical, quantitative comparison of lianas and trees of Papilionoideae, some not previously analysed anatomically. Our results show that lianas are quantitatively different from trees in having wider and more frequent vessels, a higher percentage of axial and radial parenchyma relative to fibres, greater ray height and width and longer fibres, statistically corroborating the “Lianescent Vascular Syndrome”.

Technical trick in suture-button suspensionplasty for the treatment of thumb carpometacarpal arthritis.

Suture-button suspensionplasty has been popularized in the treatment of thumb carpometacarpal (CMC) arthritis in recent years. The surgical technique of this method was well defined previously. The most challenging and important part of this technique is the tensioning of the suture-button system to preserve first metacarpal height after trapeziectomy. In present study, we would like to present a technical trick about adjusting the tension while performing suspensionplasty using suture-button device in thumb CMC joint osteoarthritis. In the original technique, trapeziectomy is performed prior to fixation and tensioning of suture-button system. However, it is quite difficult to recreate the original trapezial space, since first metacarpal subsides after trapeziectomy. The trick in our technique is that trapezium remains in its anatomic position up to the end of the operation. Thus, we do not need to make effort to adjust the thumb ray height and use fluoroscopic imaging to ensure its position. In conclusion, we believe that our technique simplifies the most challenging part of the operation, shortens the operation time, preserves the original first ray height and diminishes the exposure of ionizing radiation as it reduces the need for fluoroscopy.

Effect of carbonization on wood anatomy of three Fabaceae species from an Araucaria forest stand in Southern Brazil

The aim of this study was to measure and compare some anatomical elements of wood and charcoal of Inga vera, Machaerium paraguariense and Muellera campestris to support identification of the materials seized by regulatory authorities. For each species, three trees were analyzed. After wood evaluation, all samples (moisture content of 12 ± 1 %) were wrapped in aluminum foil and carbonized in a muffle furnace for 8 hours with final temperature of 450 °C and a heating rate of 1.66 °C/min. The number of measurements was based on 30 readings regarding tangential diameter and vessel density, along with frequency, height and width of rays (in micrometers). After carbonization, changes in cell dimensions and different behavior were observed in the Fabaceae species evaluated. In all species, vessel diameter declined; vessel density decreased in Inga vera and increased in the other species; ray height decreased in Inga vera and Muellera campestris, and increased in Machaerium paraguariense; and ray width and frequency increased in all species. We concluded that due to the conservation of wood anatomical structures after carbonization, the inclusion of this species in a database would be effective to support efforts to control deforestation in the south of Brazil.

Comparative wood anatomy of Atraphaxis taxa in Turkey

The wood anatomy of four Atraphaxis taxa that have natural distribution in Turkey—Atraphaxis billardieri Jaub. & Spach, Atraphaxis billardieri subsp. tournefortii (Jaup. & Spach) Lovelius, Atraphaxis spinosa L., and endemic Atraphaxis grandiflora (Willd.)—were compared in this study. The wood samples were sectioned according to standard techniques. Samples were macerated with Schultze’s method. Tangential and radial vessel diameters, intervessel pit diameters, vessel wall thickness, vessel elements length, dimensions of libriform fibres (lengths, widths, cell wall thickness and, lumen diameter), and uniseriate and biseriate ray heights were measured, and the number of vessels per mm2, number of rays per mm, and number of vessels per group were counted. The qualitative features such as growth rings, vessel grouping, presence of helical thickening and storied structure, vestured pits, type of perforation plate, and arrangement of axial parenchyma were determined. These four species of Atraphaxis shrubs differ in some wood characteristics such as growth rings, vessel grouping, vestured pits, height and density of rays, number of vessels per mm2, and the dimensions of the vessel.

A new fossil Cedrus species from the early Miocene of northwestern Turkey and its possible affinities

A new fossil species, Cedrus anatolica n. sp., is described from the early Miocene Hançili Formation of Turkey. All analyses were performed on the thin sections housed at Istanbul University – Cerrahpasa. The new species was interpreted as having the closest affinity with the modern Mediterranean species Cedrus atlantica (Endlicher) Manetti ex Carriere and Cedrus libani Richard. The evolutionary line shows some changes in wood anatomy. From the early Cretaceous to the early Miocene, the pits on the tangential walls of the tracheids gradually decreased, the height of rays increased and the number of epithelial cells in the traumatic resin canals increased slightly. These features are similar in three modern species; other wood anatomical features are also quite stable among the new fossil and modern species.

Ray properties in the stems of Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii) and Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi)

Abstract The radial variation of rays within the stems of Dahurian larch and Japanese larch growing in Korea was studied to obtain valuable information to identify the two species and determine wood quality. Uniseriate ray height, fusiform ray height, ray number, ray spacing, and epithelial cell number were investigated by optical microscopy. The heights of uniseriate and fusiform rays and epithelial cell numbers in Dahurian larch were lower than those in Japanese larch. Dahurian larch wood had greater ray number and ray spacing than Japanese larch wood. In both species, the heights of uniseriate and fusiform rays and epithelial cell number increased with increasing growth ring number but then stabilized from a certain growth ring number. However, ray number and ray spacing decreased with age but were stable toward the bark. There were significant differences in all ray properties between the two species. Furthermore, in both species, the number and spacing of rays showed a significant negative correlation with uniseriate ray height. The relationships between uniseriate and fusiform ray height, and between ray spacing and ray number were significantly positive. In conclusion, the results from this study provide basic information that can be used to identify these species, and the quality indices from ray properties will improve the effective utilization of the two woody species.

Using Lenses Attached to a Smartphone as a Macroscopic Early Warning Tool in the Illegal Timber Trade, in Particular for CITES-Listed Species

Wood anatomy is a key discipline as a tool for monitoring the global timber trade, particularly for wood listed in protected species conventions such as Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES). One of the main barriers to reducing illegal trafficking of protected species is ensuring that customs officials with appropriate training in wood anatomy are equipped with simple tools, at both the origin and destination of shipments, so they can raise an early warning about wood suspected of contravening international treaties and immediately send samples to a specialised laboratory. This work explains how lenses attached to a smartphone, capable of achieving up to 400× magnification using the phone digital zoom, can be used to distinguish features that are not visible with traditional 10× or 12× lenses, enhancing the capacity to view features not typically observable in the field. In softwoods, for example, this method permits determination of the type of axial parenchyma arrangement, whether there are helical thickenings in axial tracheids and whether axial tracheids have organic deposits or contain alternate polygonal pits, and in the rays, if the tracheids are smooth-walled or dentate and if the cross-field pits are window-like. In hardwoods, it allows verification of the presence of tyloses and deposits in vessels, the type of perforation plates and whether the intervascular pitting is scalariform; in the rays it is possible to differentiate the types of ray cells; and in the axial parenchyma, to determine the presence of oil cells. In addition, unlike macroscopic analysis with a conventional magnifying lens, this type of lens can be used with the appropriate mobile application for the biometry of important elements such as ray height and vessel diameter.

Forestry control in the Brazilian Amazon I: wood and charcoal anatomy of three endangered species

AbstractThe Brazilian Amazon is vastly deforested by unsustainable practices. Several species of trees are threatened by extinction and their exact number is hard to quantify. Federal laws prohibit the harvest of endangered forest species. It is a vast challenge to control the illegal trade of wood and especially charcoal in Brazil. The goal of this work is to contribute to an identification database. It presents the anatomy of wood and charcoal ofBertholletia excelsa,Hevea brasiliensisandSwietenia macrophylla. Structural modifications due to carbonization were also studied. OneEucalyptussp. hybrid was analysed as a comparison with native species. Anatomical features were well preserved in charcoals. Quantitative modifications, such as mass loss, increase of vessel and ray density, and reduction of vessel diameter and ray height, were seen in all species. The native species were easily distinguished from eucalypt in both wood and charcoal, and this study will allow easily sorting these species in cases of illegal trading. Since Amazon conservancy is highly dependent on the knowledge of native species, our results contribute to avoid illegal charcoal trade.

THE EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF TROJAN FIR (Abies nordmanniana subsp. equi-trojani [Asch. & Sint. ex Boiss] Coode & Cullen) SAPLINGS

The altitude is an important factor to affect the growth and development of saplings of the tree. However, the effect of altitude on the growth and properties of wood during their young stage it has been little studied. This study, therefore, aimed to evaluate the influence of two different altitude steps: 795 m (a.s.l. low-altitude) and 1350 m (a.s.l. high altitude) on the morphological, anatomical and wood density properties of saplings of Abies nordmanniana subsp. equi-trojani [Asch. & Sint. ex Boiss] Coode & Cullen (Trojan fir). Trojan fir is an endemic species in Turkey and its morphology and anatomy have less studied in the literature. The functional traits and wood density properties differed significantly between the two altitudes. The saplings grown at low-altitude showed greater taper degree, pith radius, pith proportion, and bark proportion than high-altitude. However, stem height, stem diameter, node number, and xylem proportion were found to be higher in saplings grown at high-altitude than low-altitude. Wood cell anatomy also varied significantly between two altitudes such that ring width, ray numbers, tracheid length, and tracheid width were higher at low-altitude, whereas ray height, ray width, tracheid lumen width, and tracheid wall thickness were greater at high-altitude. This study, therefore, suggested that the growth and development of fir saplings were better when they were grown at high-altitude than low-altitude.

Axial variation in the cambium anatomy ofSchizolobium parahybavar.amazonicum

AbstractSchizolobium parahybavar.amazonicum(paricá) is a promising forest species that has been planted in some states of the Amazon region in Brazil, to meet the demand of the plywood panel industry. The present work involves a study of the variations of the cambium and their impact on derivative tissues at different heights in the stem ofS. parahybavar.amazonicum. Except for the tangential diameter of the fusiform initials (DFI) and the width of the xylem cell layer in differentiation (WXD), there was significant statistical variation between the evaluated axial positions for all anatomical parameters of the cambium. A strong positive correlation was noticed between the length of the fusiform initials (LFI) with ray height (RH) [r = 0.79, degree of freedom (DF) = 7, P < 0.05], vessel element length (VL) (r = 0.78, DF = 7, P < 0.05) and fiber length (FL) (r = 0.74, DF = 7, P < 0.05). The results of this study give quantitative support that the LFI is an important prognosis, not only for the VL and FL, but also for the rays, in hardwood species.

Wood anatomical and topochemical analyses to characterize juvenile and adult wood of lesser-known species from Central America (Mexico)

ABSTRACT Anatomical and subcellular characteristics of juvenile and adult wood of seven species (Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen, Platymiscium yucatanum Standl., Lonchocarpus castilloi Standl., Roseodendron donnell-smithii (Rose) Miranda, Terminalia buceras (L.) Wright, Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC., Lysiloma latisiliquum (L.) Benth. from Mexico, including a histometric evaluation, were investigated by light microscopy with a digitized image analysis system and by X-ray diffractometry using the SilviScan® system. The topochemical distribution of lignin and phenolic deposits in the tissue was studied by means of cellular UV-microspectrophotometry (UMSP). Extractive contents (acetone/water and water) were determined gravimetrically. The results of the structural and topochemical analyses were compared with the interrelations of certain anatomical and subcellular structures as well as the topochemical composition with regard to the physical and mechanical properties of the timbers investigated. The objective was to provide a detailed cellular and subcellular description of the heartwood of seven lesser-known timbers from Central America. All examined tree species show significant differences between juvenile and adult heartwood. For individual species, however, the differences vary greatly and have to be individually assessed in addition to general trends observed for all studied species. It has been shown that vessel size, fibre length, size of fibre lumina, and height and width of rays, as well as the content of extractives and topochemical composition of the cell walls, are suitable indicators for the differentiation of the two heartwood types. The results also contribute to a better understanding of the wood properties of the investigated timbers in relation to their utilization and added value increase.