Raw Water Sources Research Articles

ANALISIS EFISIENSI POMPA SENTRIFUGAL PADA DESALINASI DENGAN PROSES REVERSE OSMOSIS

This study provides information for the desalination industry in an effort to improve the performance and efficiency of desalination systems using the reverse osmosis method. By paying attention to the factors that influence the efficiency of centrifugal pumps, the provision of clean water in areas experiencing a water crisis will be better. Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a system in desalination technology that is often used to replenish fresh water supplies. RO performance depends on the quality of sea water as the raw water source. RO works by utilizing osmotic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure which is greater than osmotic pressure is used to reverse the flow, thereby producing fresh water. RO utilizes a high-pressure pump process to flow seawater through a membrane polymer structure. In RO there is a main membrane module configuration which has two functions, namely supporting the performance of the RO membrane and providing efficient fluid management. The desalination system used at PT Perusahaan Air Indonesia America (PAIA) still uses centrifugal pumps and can produce a production capacity of 600-700 m3/day, and is still in the system upgrade stage. From the calculations that have been carried out, the pump efficiency value is 59.16%.

ANALISIS BIAYA INVESTASI AIR CURAH PADA SISTEM PENYEDIAAN AIR MINUM (SPAM) BENDUNGAN TAMBLANG DI KABUPATEN BULELENG

Buleleng Regency has sub-districts that still experience a shortage of raw water. Tamblang Dam is one of the sources of raw water that will be utilized to meet the needs of raw water in Buleleng Regency. Given the extreme topographic conditions in Buleleng Regency, an economic feasibility study is needed which is used as a reference for the implementer of development and becomes a standard for the feasibility of this infrastructure development. Tariff determination can be done by calculating the capex and opex. Capex is a component of the operational costs required and opex is the investment cost of development. Raw Water consists of a Transmission Unit consisting of Preparatory work for permits, with the source of funds from the APBN, Consulting Services and Stages of Supervision services from the source of funds from the APBN, Construction Work Civil Works, Mechanical Electrical Works IPA and JDU, Mechanical Electrical Works Distribution Reservoirs with the source of funds from the APBN while in the Production unit the preparation work, planning and supervision of the Distribution Reservoir uses the APBD budget. The total value of the overall SPAM Tamblang Reservoir RAB in Buleleng Regency is Rp299,887,860,916.13 plus a tax of Rp332,875,526,000.00.

Determining the Suitable Location of Constructed Wetland for the Polluted River Water Treatment Based on Analytical Hierarchy Process and Geographic Information System Analysis

The Tukad Badung River is a vital raw water source in Denpasar City and Badung Regency. Concerning the water pollution of the river, water treatment is necessary to manage the water quality. Constructed wetlands are a water treatment technology used for water purification. In this regard, information is essential regarding the appropriate location for the placement of the constructed wetland based on criteria related to the water treatment plant. The research was conducted to determine the suitability level of water treatment locations in the watershed using the Analytic Hierarchy Process method in integration with a Geographic Information System. The Geographic Information System analysis included overlaying steps of the processed and classified data from each criterion: land use, slope, and water pollution index. The Analytic Hierarchy Process method was carried out to obtain the weight of each criterion down to the sub-criteria, which were compiled through interviews with three informants from academic, government, and community representatives. Weight calculations were performed using Expert Choice 11 software to obtain weight values with a consistency ratio of < 0.1. Geographic Information System analysis using the Analytic Hierarchy Process method produces three suitable land types according to the level of suitability for water treatment locations, with constructed wetlands located in the upstream, middle, and downstream parts of the river. Information regarding suitable land is useful for planning the technical design of water treatment plants with constructed wetlands.

ANALISIS KETERSEDIAAN DAN KEBUTUHAN AIR BAKU DISTRIK BONGGO KABUPATEN SARMI

The development of an area will cause the demand for water to continue to increase along with thepopulation growth rate. The fulfillment of food needs and the activities of the population are always closely relatedto the need for water. The demands are unavoidable but must be predicted and planned for optimal utilization.The tendency that often occurs is the imbalance between water availability and water demand. To achieve abalance between water demand and availability in the future, efforts are needed to assess the components of rawwater availability and demand as clean water sources. The source of clean water for the people of Bonggo District, Sarmi Regency, comes from borehole pumps,shallow wells (pumps), and rainwater. The analysis results on the need for domestic and non-domestic clean waterin the Bonggo District in 2023 show a total requirement of 210.38 liters/day or 0.0024 m3/second. The need forclean water is expected to increase by 2043, with the total requirement for domestic and non-domestic clean waterreaching 285,820 liters/day or 0.0033 m3/second. The availability and need for clean water sourced from rawwater that can be utilized as clean water comes from pump bore wells as a suitable raw water source. In terms ofquantity, it is available 24 hours a day and throughout the year. The investigation results of the pump bore wellraw water source meet the clean water quality requirements according to Government Regulation No. 82 of 2001,Level II. This is supported by groundwater, obtained through the analysis of geological conditions, land cover,morphology, and river flow, which have a high to very high groundwater potential score, located in the northernpart of Bonggo District. Economically, in terms of quantity, rainwater can be used as clean water due to its sufficientavailability, with high rainfall (104,775 mm/year) and year-round service (continuity), and in terms of quality, theresults of rainwater quality tests meet the clean water standards according to quality standards.

Raw Water Sources and Water Supply Systems in the Udaipur City

Raw Water Sources and Water Supply Systems in the Udaipur City

Assessing the influence of environmental variables on energy efficiency changes in the provision of drinking water services

Within the context of the water-energy nexus in drinking water provision, it is crucial to evaluate temporal shifts in energy efficiency. Utilizing the Stochastic Nonparametric Envelopment of Data (StoNED) approach, this research estimates longitudinal variations in the energy efficiency of drinking water services integrating multiple environmental variables. The analysis, conducted in England and Wales from 2008 to 2020, indicates that the source and quality of raw water, as well as population density, influenced the energy performance of water utilities. Quantitative findings evidenced marked disparity in energy efficiency among different companies, with an average efficiency of 0.617 and a range from 0.437 to 0.944. The dynamic assessment indicates an average annual enhancement of 1.1% in the sector, predominantly propelled by technical advancements (0.9%) rather than by improvements in efficiency (0.2%). This study emphasizes the critical need for bespoke policies and incentives to boost energy efficiency and support sustainable urban water management.

Predicting energy performance of the drinking water treatment process and its determinants

ABSTRACT Within the global climate change framework, enhancing energy efficiency presents a significant challenge for water utilities. Drinking water treatment is energy-intensive, involving several physicochemical processes to remove multiple pollutants from raw water. This study employs artificial neural networks (ANNs) and decision tree methods to gain a deeper understanding of the water–energy nexus in drinking water treatment processes. The energy efficiency of a sample of Chilean drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) was estimated, resulting in an average score of 0.343. This indicates that on average, DWTPs could potentially save 65.7% of their current energy consumption if they were operating at an efficient level while producing the same quantity and quality of drinking water. The main source of raw water and the technology for treating water have been identified as critical factors influencing energy efficiency. Specifically, using surface water for producing drinking water–-energy efficiency can increase to 0.514, whereas using groundwater would regress energy efficiency to 0.240. The use of predictive tools such as ANNs provides relevant information to support decision-making processes for a transition toward a sustainable urban water cycle.

The importance of institutional capacity in drinking water supply system governance: A policy evaluation from border area

In most developing countries, the equal access to clean and potable water is a major challenge faced by many communities. This research aims to evaluate water supply system governance policies as well as potential springs, constraints and problems related to the water needs of border communities. This research is a descriptive study using a qualitative approach. The qualitative approach looks at policies, institutions, conflicts, and problems faced, as well as looking at data on water sources, socio-economic challenges, culture, and local wisdom. The research location was in Belu Regency, on the Indonesia-Leste Timor border. Research informants were representatives of local government, academics and the community. The problems faced are the underdevelopment of piped networks due to budget constraints, low capacity and quality of human resources, and the absence of specific regulations governing the Drinking Water Supply System (SPAM). The study area has springs spread across 11 subdistricts, with raw water potential ranging from 0.5 to 250 liters per second. Most of these water sources are good for community consumption, but some have not been optimally utilized so that they cannot be fully utilized to meet the needs of the population. The results show that SPAM management policies can be implemented to a certain extent, but have not yet run optimally because they still require capacity building and competence of the apparatus and local communities and an increase in the role of local governments to help implement central government policies in relation to assistance tasks and as a tool for deconcentration of the central government. In conclusion, the potential of raw water sources has not been fully utilized due to the challenges of infrastructure development and the limited capacity of human resources and budgets. Without good management and institutional support, communities will continue to face problems related to access to clean water.

Occurrence and characterization of microplastics in bottled drinking water

Microplastics (MPs) have been identified in diverse settings, including drinking water, freshwater, food, air, and marine environments. This study employed stereomicroscopic and µ-Raman techniques to analyze water samples from ten widely consumed bottled water brands, aiming to detect and characterize MPs. Additionally, the oral consumption of MPs per capita was estimated. The average abundance of MPs ranged from 9 ± 1.00 MPs/L to 3 ± 1.73 MPs/L across all brands. Various MPs shapes were observed, including fibers, fragments, films, and pellets, with fibers being predominant (58.928%). MPs were categorized by color into five groups (red, blue, black, yellow, and transparent), with red comprising approximately 35.714% of the total count. All identified MPs were less than 500 µm in size. µ-Raman analysis validated the presence of eight different polymer types in the samples, namely Polypropylene (PP) (37.5%), Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) (3.571%), polystyrene (PS) (33.928%), polycarbonate (PC) (3.571%), polybutylene1 (PB1) (14.2%), Isotactic polypropylene (iPP) (7.142), Nylone 6-α polymorph (αNY6) (5.357%), and polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) (1.785%). The estimated daily intake of MPs per person was determined to be 0.42 MPs, translating to an annual intake of 153.3 MPs per person. The origin of MPs in bottled water was likely attributed to both raw water sources and packaging materials, underscoring the need for further investigation. Given the potential health implications of human exposure to drinking water MPs, careful consideration should be given to the use of plastic packaging for potable water.

Pharmaceuticals in raw and treated water from drinking water treatment plants nationwide: Insights into their sources and exposure risk assessment

Due to the large amounts of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) currently being consumed and released into the environment, this study provides a comprehensive analysis of pharmaceutical pollution in both raw and treated water from full-scale drinking water treatment plants nationwide. Our investigation revealed that 30 out of 37 PPCPs were present in raw water with mean concentrations ranging from 0.01–131 ng/L. The raw water sources, surface water (ND – 147 ng/L), subsurface water (ND – 123 ng/L) and reservoir sources (ND – 135 ng/L) exhibited higher mean concentration levels of pharmaceutical residues compared to groundwater sources (ND – 1.89 ng/L). Meanwhile, in treated water, 17 of the 37 analyzed PPCPs were present with carbamazepine, clarithromycin, fluconazole, telmisartan, valsartan, and cotinine being the most common (detection frequency > 40 %), and having mean concentrations of 1.22, 0.12, 3.48, 40.1, 6.36, and 3.73 ng/L, respectively. These findings highlight that, while water treatment processes are effective, there are some persistent compounds that prove challenging to fully eliminate. Using Monte Carlo simulations, risk assessment indicated that most of these compounds are likely to have negligible impact on human health, except for the antihypertensives. Telmisartan was identified as posing the highest ecological risk (RQ > 1), warranting further investigation, and monitoring. The study concludes by prioritizing specific 14 pharmaceuticals, including telmisartan, clarithromycin, lamotrigine, cotinine, lidocaine, tramadol, and others, for future monitoring to safeguard both ecological and human health.

Water recovery and treatment of spent filter backwash from drinking water using chemical reactor-ultrafiltration process

During routine operations of water treatment plant (WTP), production of spent filter backwash water (SFBW) is inevitable that imposes high operation and maintenance costs. The study investigates treatment and water recovery from SFBW from WTP via combined chemical reactor-ultrafiltration (CR-UF) process. The daily generated SFBW from full-scale treatment plants were treated by the pilot pant of CR-UF process, which is comprised of a primary sedimentation basin, coagulation and flocculation tank immersed UF membrane module. The optimum conditions for CR process were pH 7.5 and FeCl3 dose 20 mg/L, which led to significant removal of turbidity, color, and UV254 that are equal to 97.11 ± 0.10 %, 63.31 ± 1.98 %, and 30.74 ± 0.72 %, respectively. The CR-UF produced permeate with very low turbidity (0.3 ± 0.01 NTU and 93.0 ± 1.1 % removal) has met the water standard of 5 NTU. During the continuous operation of CR-UF process and after three consecutive cycles of UF backwashing, initial flux slightly declined from 8.57 L/m2.h in the 1st cycle to 8.20 L/m2.h in the 3rd cycle, demonstrating the irreversible fouling due to nanoparticle blocking. In four proposed blending of SFBW, the amount of UV254 and TOC did not change significantly (<1 % increase), and additional coagulant was not needed. The hazard index (HI) values for all the population groups were <1, suggesting a minimal adverse health risk regarding the consumption of treated SFBW by the CR-UF process. Overall, the permeate stream of CR-UF process can be reused as a source of raw water for drinking water treatment plant.

Identifikasi Kedalaman Muka Air Tanah dan Posisi Akuifer di Kabupaten Tolikara

Groundwater is dynamic and influenced by a number of natural factors. Geology and geomorphology greatly determine the condition of the soil in an area. The geological structure influences the direction of groundwater movement, the type and thickness of the aquifer. The Karubaga District in Tolikara Regency is an area with a morphology of mountains, hills and valleys so it has the potential for rivers and streams that can be used as a source of raw water. Identification of the depth of the groundwater level in the Karubaga District is carried out using tools in the form of the AIDU Golden Rod (AGR), which is a special geophysical study instrument that provides a detailed vertical picture 300 m into the ground surface to read the resistivity values of rocks and aquifers by measuring the natural electric field

Water quality analysis, treatment, and economic feasibility of water services of the Neora River in the fringe area of Neora-Valley National Park, India

ABSTRACT Surface water assessment is essential for an accurate water management plan. The present investigation was focused on quality analysis, treatment, and economic feasibility of the River Neora, a raw water source in the fringe area of the Neora-Valley National Park, India. Pearson's correlations showed a positive correlation (0.629) between temperature and total solids (TS), whereas a negative correlation (−0.23) for dissolved oxygen with other parameters. In ANOVA, F-value (&amp;gt;1) was obtained for all parameters except BOD5. The water quality index (WQI) was determined to find out whether the river water meets the drinking water requirements for local inhabitants in the lower fringe. A high coliform count (approximately 4.5/100 mL) downstream further warranted the design of an advanced treatment, the electrochemical oxidation batch reactor. To maintain the water quality grade, the estimation of water benefits was mandatory. The water consumption for domestic and non-domestic purposes was calculated at 5,314,400 and 1,470,000,000 L/yr, respectively. Obtainability and no tax coverage might have led to the overexploitation of water, which paved the way for monetary evaluation (US$695.29). This study provided an overview of the potential of River Neora, which can be restored in the long run by adopting the water development policies by the government.

Performance analysis of PEMFC-assisted renewable energy source heat pumps as a novel active system for plus energy buildings

The adoption of plus energy buildings (PEBs) has been considered extensively in various nations for carbon neutralization. However, studies on suitable active systems that can efficiently supply heating, cooling, and electrical energy to PEBs are lacking. This study proposes PEMFC-assisted renewable energy source heat pumps (PEMFC-RSHPs) as active systems for plus energy buildings. In the steady-state simulations using TRNSYS, the waste-heat recovery effect was investigated at various current densities and PEMFC temperatures. In the transient simulations, the seasonal operating characteristics, energy, economic, and environmental performances of PEMFC-RSHPs using air, raw-water, and ground energy sources were analyzed. During the heating season, the maximum primary energy efficiency (PEF) of a PEMFC-assisted ground source heat pump (GSHP) was approximately 0.252 at an optimal current density of 0.8 A cm−2. However, during the cooling season, the PEMFC-assisted raw-water source heat pump (RWSHP) showed the highest PEF of 0.407 at an optimal current density of 0.7 A cm−2. In addition, the CO2 emissions of the PEMFC-GSHP using green hydrogen were 54.3% lower than those using gray hydrogen, although the economic feasibility was still challenging. In conclusion, the PEMFC-GSHP using green hydrogen is the most feasible active system for PEBs.

Assessing energy efficiency of water services and its drivers: A case study from water companies in England and Wales

Understanding how energy efficient the water services are and what drives inefficiency can greatly assist water utilities in delivering sustainable services. This study employs a neural network (NN) approach to measure the energy efficiency of water services in relation to the volume of drinking water supplied and the number of connected properties. Unlike other non-parametric approaches, NN allows capturing the complex relationships and dependencies between various factors influencing energy efficiency of water companies. An empirical application for English and Welsh water utilities embracing water only companies (WoCs) and water and sewerage companies (WaSCs) over 2008–2020 was conducted. The average energy efficiency score was found to be 0.411, indicating that water utilities could potentially save 0.54 kWh per cubic meter of drinking water supplied. Notably, WaSCs exhibited better energy performance compared to WoCs, with energy efficiency scores of 0.559 and 0.239, respectively. Nevertheless, based on the volume of water delivered, WaSCs could save 0.65 kWh/m3 whereas WoCs potential energy savings are 0.24 kWh/m3. Energy efficiency remained relatively stable across the years, with average values of 0.440, 0.388 and 0.454 for the periods 2008–2010, 2011–2015, and 2016–2020, respectively. The analysis conducted using decision tree methods highlighted the relevance of water treatment quality and the source of raw water as key variables influencing the energy efficiency of water utilities. These findings can be valuable for policymakers, enabling them to gain a deeper understanding of the driving factors behind energy efficiency in water service provision.

Analysing the interlinkage between diarrhoea and drinking water faecal contamination in India

ABSTRACT Diarrhoea is one of the major waterborne diseases spread through the faecal–oral route causing over 10 million cases and over 1,000 deaths per year in India. This study critically evaluates the interlinkage between bacteriological water quality, i.e. faecal coliforms and diarrhoea cases for the three pre-pandemic years 2017, 2018 and 2019 based on multiple sources. With around 17% of households tap water connectivity as of August 2019, the majority of the Indian population depends on raw groundwater (GW) and surface water sources. For this, faecal coliform (FC) levels in surface and GW have been mapped at district levels using data from India's National Water Quality Monitoring Programme. Health Management Information System's data on diarrhoea have been used to understand the monthly and district-wise variation of diarrhoea. The trends of FC, diarrhoea inpatient cases, and diarrhoea inpatient rates have been discussed. The analysis showed issues associated with the reliability and usefulness of these datasets with 43% of total India districts with no reported FC values for the study period. This study reveals a clear gap in the interlinkage between diarrhoea and bacteriological water quality with the unavailability of granular water quality data as a major challenge.

Assessing water quality of the Saigon River under the impact of industrial wastewater incidents

The Saigon River, as its economic potential and clusters and industrial parks evolve, is threatened by a high potential for water pollution. The objective is to evaluate the water quality (BOD5 and COD) under the influence of industrial wastewater incidents in the Saigon River using MIKE 21FM model. The results of model calibration and validation have high reliability with NSE values larger than 0.65 for the flow simulation and percentage error values less than 25% for the water quality simulation. Subsequently, the study proceeds to develop hypothetical scenarios in case untreated wastewater from industrial parks is charged directly into the Saigon River with actual discharge volumes of 15,811 m3/day and 30,000 m3/day. The results indicated that when an incident occurs at a location 1.3 km upstream from the Hoa Phu pumping station with a discharge volume of 15,811 m3/day, that has the most consequential impact, in terms of time and concentration of water pollutants on the pumping station. Specifically, the water quality at the pumping station area experiences a remarkable decrease after one and three hours of incidents in the dry and rainy seasons, respectively. In general, the impacts of industrial wastewater incidents vary depending on their location. An incident beneath the Hoa Phu pumping station on the Saigon River is expected to have a faster impact on the raw water source during the dry season compared to the rainy season.

Pilot studies for the application of triple media filtration at Morton Jaffray Water Works, Harare, Zimbabwe

Abstract Lake Chivero, Harare's main source of raw water for drinking water, is algae infested thus affecting water treatment processes at Morton Jaffray Water Treatment Works (MJWTW). Consequently, several challenges have been encountered including frequent filter backwashing, leading to a reduced plant output. In this study, the potential of substituting single-media filters (currently used at MJWTW) with triple-media filters was investigated. This was done using pilot filters of a single-media filter (SMF) and a triple-media filter (TMF) and piloted using clarified water from MJWTW. Electrical conductivity (EC), pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, and temperature were the water quality parameters that were monitored. Headloss and flow rate were the filter operation parameters that were monitored. Both water quality and operational parameters were monitored at hourly intervals until one filter reached the maximum allowable headloss or turbidity limit. The variation in effluent turbidity, TDS, EC, and pH between the filters was insignificant. Nevertheless, the headloss development for the TMF was significantly slower than that of the SMF resulting in the SMF reaching the maximum headloss earlier. Therefore, the TMF performed better overall. Therefore, the adoption of TMF could result in a longer filter run and improve filtration and water production at MJWTW.

Hydrodynamic Investigation of Laguna Lake, Philippines for Water Security and Flood Risk Management of Metro Manila

Abstract. Laguna Lake, strategically located at the center of urban development, Metro Manila, is the focal point of national development efforts for economic activities, including flood disaster operation. It is the most stressed inland water body at the same time however, with competing and conflicting water-users, and continued environmental degradation from anthropogenic-based stressors. The use of the lake as a source of raw water for domestic supply have become more significant and critical over the past recent years with the aggravating condition of water scarcity in Metro Manila. It also serves as an important flood-detention storage for Metro Manila during the rainy season, with flow diversions from upstream Marikina river basin. This study presents a three-dimensional hydrodynamic study of Laguna Lake to understand the physical processes that govern and influence lake hydraulics for various water uses. A hydrodynamic model was set-up incorporating spatial and temporal variations in wind forcing and watershed river discharges, and dynamic sea interaction. Simulation results reveal a significant increase in lake salinity concentration for incremental increases in lake water abstraction, particularly during the dry season. A numerical experiment on bathymetric evolution also showed various Pasig River hydraulic discharge features and an increase in hydraulic residence time of the lake. Modelling analysis on the lake's flood detention function on the other hand revealed different shore-land flood inundation areas and recession durations for varying lake-flood detention levels that warrants the need for a more comprehensive and sustainable flood management operation in the metropolis. Results from this study substantiate scientific information for outlining management approaches and conservation strategies especially for fast developing environments.

Upstream land use with microbial downstream consequences: Iron and humic substances link to Legionella spp.

Intensified land use can disturb water quality, potentially increasing the abundance of bacterial pathogens, threatening public access to clean water. This threat involves both direct contamination of faecal bacteria as well as indirect factors, such as disturbed water chemistry and microbiota, which can lead to contamination. While direct contamination has been well described, the impact of indirect factors is less explored, despite the potential of severe downstream consequences on water supply. To assess direct and indirect downstream effects of buildings, farms, pastures and fields on potential water sources, we studied five Swedish lakes and their inflows. We analysed a total of 160 samples in a gradient of anthropogenic activity spanning four time points, including faecal and water-quality indicators. Through species distribution modelling, Random Forest and network analysis using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing data, our findings highlight that land use indirectly impacts lakes via inflows. Land use impacted approximately one third of inflow microbiota taxa, in turn impacting ∼20–50 % of lake taxa. Indirect effects via inflows were also suggested by causal links between e.g. water colour and lake bacterial taxa, where this influenced the abundance of several freshwater bacteria, such as Polynucleobacter and Limnohabitans. However, it was not possible to identify direct effects on the lakes based on analysis of physiochemical- or microbial parameters. To avoid potential downstream consequences on water supply, it is thus important to consider possible indirect effects from upstream land use and inflows, even when no direct effects can be observed on lakes. Legionella (a genus containing bacterial pathogens) illustrated potential consequences, since the genus was particularly abundant in inflows and was shown to increase by the presence of pastures, fields, and farms. The approach presented here could be used to assess the suitability of lakes as alternative raw water sources or help to mitigate contaminations in important water catchments. Continued broad investigations of stressors on the microbial network can identify indirect effects, avoid enrichment of pathogens, and help secure water accessibility.