Portland Cement Research Articles

Water Resistance of Compressed Earth Blocks Stabilised with Thermoactivated Recycled Cement.

Low water resistance is the main shortcoming of unfired earth materials, requiring chemical stabilisation for some durable applications. Ordinary Portland cement (PC) is an efficient stabiliser, but it goes against the ecological and sustainable nature of earth construction. This study explores the use of low-carbon thermoactivated recycled cement (RC) obtained from old cement waste as a new eco-efficient alternative to PC in the stabilisation of compressed earth blocks (CEBs). The objective is to improve the durability of the CEB masonry even when applied in direct contact with water, without compromising its eco-efficiency. The water resistance of the CEBs with 0% (unstabilised) and 5% and 10% (wt. of earth) stabiliser and partial to total replacement of PC with RC (0, 20, 50, 100% wt.) was evaluated in terms of compressive strength under different moisture contents, immersion and capillary water absorption, low-pressure water absorption, water permeability and water erosion. Low absorption and high resistance to water erosion were achieved in stabilised CEBs, regardless of the type of cement used. The incorporation of RC increased the total porosity and water absorption of the CEBs compared to PC, but significantly improved the water resistance of the unstabilised blocks. The eco-friendlier RC proved to be a promising alternative to PC stabilisation.

Support Patterns of Roadways Under Fractured Surrounding Rocks Based on the Quality Level of Rock Mass

The roadway project of broken rock mass in the Shilu Iron Deposit was taken as the research object to discuss the stability control of the surrounding rocks using support patterns with broken rock mass. The grade evaluation of rock mass quality was conducted based on the geomechanical classification of rock mass. The roadway support effect in broken rock mass was calculated. Then, the section convergence characteristics of roadway surrounding rocks were analyzed under the current support scheme using displacement monitoring technology. The conclusions were described as follows: (1) The surrounding rock integrity of the No. 6 and No. 7 transportation roadways in the middle section of the Baoxiu mining area (Level 120) is poor. Based on geological survey data and rock mass classification, the rock mass quality in this region has been rated as Class IV. The joint support pattern of the anchor net and shotcrete was used according to the support guidelines. (2) The parameters for the support structure within Shilu Iron Deposit were designed, according to the requirements, as follows: the use of Portland cement; a shotcrete thickness of 55 mm; resin bolts with a minimum outer diameter of φ 20 mm and a length of 2200 mm; and row and column spacings of 1100 mm each. Meanwhile, a rectangular metal mesh of 80 × 80 mm was used as the anchor mesh. (3) The cross-section displacement reached 20 mm within a week using the support pattern according to displacement monitoring results of the on-site roadway section. Moreover, the convergence deformation rate significantly changed. However, the rate rapidly decreased after the first week, and the cross-section showed no further deformation after one month. The support pattern could control the displacement of surrounding rocks, which was verified by the monitoring results.

Application of novel deep neural network on prediction of compressive strength of fly ash based concrete

ABSTRACT Fly ash (FA)-based high-strength concrete (HSC) has attracted significant interest due to its potential to substitute Portland cement, offering both environmental benefits and improved performance. However, the design of FA-HSC is challenging, as key factors such as fly ash percentage, water content, and superplasticizer dosage have a complex influence on compressive strength. This study aims to develop an efficient predictive tool for FA-HSC mix design, using artificial intelligence (AI) models to address the inherent variability and uncertainty in these parameters. Six AI models, including a Deep Neural Network (DNN), were employed to analyse the relationships between mix design variables and compressive strength. The DNN model, in particular, demonstrated superior performance compared to the other models, with a high coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.89), variance accounted for (VAF = 88.3%), root mean square error (RMSE = 0.06), and residual standard error (RSR = 0.31). These results indicate that the DNN model can provide reliable predictions of compressive strength, offering a more efficient alternative to traditional trial-and-error methods. The AI-based approach can save both time and material costs while optimising performance. Overall, this AI-driven model contributes to the advancement of sustainable concrete technology by enabling more precise and resource-efficient mix designs for FA-based high-strength concrete.

Preparation and characterisation of pozzolanic blended cement incorporating various ratio of volcanic basalt

ABSTRACT The construction industry relies heavily on cement and concrete as primary building materials. However, concerns regarding environmental sustainability have prompted efforts to develop more durable and sustainable alternatives to Ordinary Portland cement (OPC), the commonly used binder materials with low CO2 emission, where every ton of cement produce about 0.94 ton of carbon dioxide. The present study investigates the partial replacement of clinker with volcanic basalt powder in cement production to produce eco-friendly building materials with low emission of CO2, in addition to conserve the native raw materials from depletion. The replacement was done with various ratios up to 30%. The findings are supported by XRD and FTIR analyses as well as DTG. The results indicate that the use of basalt enhances the mineralogical and physical properties of the cement, resulting in the formation of a pozzolanic cement with sustainable characteristics. Notably, a 15% basalt ratio produces the highest extent of binding cementing phases upon hydration, leading to maximum compressive strength. Further, on increasing in basalt content lead to a decrease in strength, although the compressive strength remains above the target value of 42.5 MPa for 20% and more than 32.5 MPa for 25%.

A comprehensive review of the formation, properties, and applications of limestone calcined clay cement (LC3)

Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) has emerged as a promising alternative to conventional Portland cement due to its reduced carbon footprint and improved performance characteristics. This comprehensive review explores the formation, properties, and applications of LC3, aiming to provide a detailed understanding of its potential in sustainable construction practices. The review begins with an overview of the raw materials involved in LC3 production, highlighting the synergistic effects of limestone and calcined clay in enhancing cementitious properties and reducing clinker content. Structural and chemical transformations during the calcination and hydration processes are discussed, emphasizing the role of supplementary cementitious materials in optimizing cement performance. The mechanical, durability, and environmental attributes of LC3 are critically examined, showcasing its superior strength development, resistance to chloride ingress, and lower energy consumption compared to traditional cements. Applications of LC3 in various construction sectors, including residential, commercial, and infrastructure projects, are elucidated, demonstrating its versatility and potential for global adoption. Furthermore, challenges such as standardization, scalability, and economic feasibility are addressed alongside future research directions aimed at advancing LC3 technology. This review consolidates recent advancements and establishes LC3 as a viable solution for sustainable cement production, offering insights into its transformative impact on the construction industry and environmental sustainability.

Experimental research on mechanically and thermally activation of nano-kaolin to improve the properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete

Abstract The rising demand for ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) necessitates innovations in sustainable materials. This study explores the substitution of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with thermally and mechanically activated nano-kaolin in varying proportions from 0.5 to 0.25%. A uniform quantity of double-hooked end steel fibers was added to all the mixes. Activated nano-kaolin variants showed significant enhancement in UHPC properties. Specifically, UHPC with 0.20% thermally activated kaolin (B3-TAK-20) exhibited a 21.6% increase in compressive strength and a 25.5% increase in modulus of elasticity at 90 days, with the modulus of rupture doubling compared to the reference mix. These improvements are attributed to the amorphous nature of thermally activated nano-kaolin, resulting in a denser concrete matrix and reduced porosity. Beyond the optimal 0.20% kaolin replacement, an increase to 0.25% diminished compressive strength. Durability tests showed enhanced acid resistance, with only a 6.7% mass loss for the thermally activated nano-kaolin mix and a consistent reduction in water absorption by 14.4% as kaolin proportions increased from 0.5 to 0.25%. The study also noted a decrease in water absorption by 22.9 and 12.3% at 56 and 90 days, respectively, indicating the thermally activated nano-kaolin’s enhanced performance. This research underscores the potential of activated kaolin as a viable alternative to OPC, paving the way for more sustainable UHPC production.

Mechanical properties of high-volume fly ash concrete with varying fly ash content

Fly ash is widely used as a replacement for cement to produce more environmentally friendly concrete with reliable performance in construction applications. Therefore, this research aimed to analyze the mechanical properties of high-volume fly ash concrete (HVFAC) using class F fly ash with different percentages. Performance tests that were carried out included workability, unit weight, and compressive strength. Laboratory experiments were conducted by making 5 variations of mix design, namely variation 1 (FA0), which consisted of normal concrete with a control test material of 100% Portland cement. The other 4 variations were HVFAC (FA70, FA80, FA90, and FA100), which were made with fly ash content comprising 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100% of the total binders/cementitious. Fresh concrete was tested for workability, while hardened concrete was tested for unit weight and compressive strength at ages 3, 7, and 28 days on test specimens subjected to water immersion curing. The results showed that all workability of HVFAC test specimens met the self-consolidated concrete (SCC) category. The dry unit weight of all specimens met the requirements for normal-weight concrete. The results of the compressive strength test at 28 days showed that the addition of fly ash percentage caused a decrease in the compressive strength value of the entire HVFAC, but still exceeded the minimum requirements for high-quality concrete. HVFAC with variations FA70, FA80, and FA90 met the requirements of ASTM C618-12a based on the evaluation of Strength Activity Index (SAI) values at 7 and 28 days of age, while FA100 did not meet the requirements.

Incorporating Limestone Powder and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag in Ultra-high Performance Concrete to Enhance Sustainability

While ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) offers numerous advantages, it also presents specific challenges, primarily due to its high cost and excessive cement content, which can pose sustainability concerns. To address this challenge, this study aims to develop cost-effective and sustainable UHPC mixtures by incorporating ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and limestone powder (LP) as partial replacements for portland cement. Eight fiber-reinforced UHPC mixtures were investigated, with a water-to-cementitious materials (w/cm) ratio of 0.15. In four of the UHPC mixtures, 25% of the cement was replaced with GGBFS, and further, LP was added as a mineral filler, partially substituting up to 20% of the cement. In the remaining four mixtures, cement was replaced with only LP up to 20% (without GGBFS). The 28-day compressive strength of the UHPC mixture with 25% GGBFS and 20% LP was 149 MPa, 3.50% lower than the mixture without GGBFS. Its 28-day flexural strength decreased by 30%. Increasing LP replacement reduced drying and autogenous shrinkage, with a 29% shrinkage reduction at 20% LP replacement. Moreover, UHPC mixtures with GGBFS exhibited lower shrinkage compared to those without GGBFS for all LP replacements up to 20%. For evaluating the sustainability of UHPC mixtures, the cement composition index (CCI) and clinker to cement ratio (CCR) were determined. For 20% LP replacement with 25% GGBFS, CCI was 3.6 and the CCR was 0.5, 38% decrease from the global clinker to cement ratio. Overall, 20% LP replacement UHPC mixtures with and without GGBFS can produce UHPC class performance and reduce the environmental impact.

Impact of hydrochar in stabilization/solidification of heavy metal-contaminated soil with Portland cement.

Stabilization/Solidification (S/S) using Portland cement is a common soil remediation technique for heavy metal-contaminated sites. However, due to the hindrance of cement hydration by heavy metals (HMs) and the high CO2 emissions from cement production, efforts have been made to reduce cement consumption. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) present an efficient alternative for this purpose. This study investigates the impact of hydrochar and modified hydrochar as SCMs for remediating soils contaminated with Zn, Pb, and Cd. Forty treated soil samples were evaluated using unconfined compressive strength (UCS), pH, Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP), and sequential extraction procedure (SEP) tests, and statistical analysis was conducted to assess the effects of binder content, hydrochar dosage, and hydrochar type. Results show that substituting cement with hydrochar or modified hydrochar reduces UCS by 10-40%, with hydrochar having a greater negative impact than modified hydrochar. pH values ranged from 6.98 to 12.64, facilitating HMs precipitation. In heavily contaminated samples, hydrochar or modified hydrochars significantly decreased the Zn, Pb, and Cd TCLP values by 55%, 63%, and 50%, respectively. In moderately contaminated samples, the reduction was slight for Zn and Pb, with no significant change for Cd. SEP test results indicated that hydrochar or modified hydrochar in cement improves the transformation of the acid-soluble fraction to the residual fraction of Zn and Pb, but not for Cd-contaminated soil samples. Overall, these findings suggest that incorporating hydrochar or modified hydrochar as SCMs in cement contributes to reducing cement usage and CO2 emissions while enhancing the stabilization efficiency of certain heavy metals in contaminated soils.

Effect of pore solution alkalinity on alkali–silica reaction (ASR) in metakaolin‐based geopolymer

AbstractGeopolymer concretes have shown better resistance against alkali–silica reaction (ASR) than ordinary Portland cement concretes, which was attributed to the low pore solution alkalinity of the geopolymer. However, the alkalinity of the geopolymer pore solution depends on the concentration and volume of the activating solutions used and age of the geopolymer. The main objective of this study was to investigate the effects of pore solution alkalinity on the ASR expansion of the metakaolin‐based geopolymer concrete. The chemistry of the pore solution of metakaolin‐based geopolymer was studied, and its reaction with reactive and non‐reactive aggregates was investigated. The concrete prism expansion tests showed no ASR‐induced expansion in geopolymer despite sufficient pore solution alkalinity to attack the reactive aggregates. The SEM and XRD characterizations confirmed that no ASR‐related gel was formed during the reaction between reactive aggregates and extracted pore solution. The chemical structure of the reaction product between aggregates and pore solution was characterized using MAS NMR and revealed no difference in the reaction products with reactive and non‐reactive aggregates. The results suggest that the pore solution alkalinity is not the sole governing parameter for ASR expansion in the geopolymer.

Early-Age Behaviour of Portland Cement Incorporating Ultrafine Recycled Powder: Insights into Hydration, Setting, and Chemical Shrinkage.

This study examines the effects of ultrafine recycled powder (URP) obtained from construction and demolition waste on the hydration kinetics, setting behaviour, and chemical shrinkage of Portland cement pastes. The presence of ultrafine particles in the recycled powder provides more sites for nucleation, thereby promoting the hydration process and accelerating the rate of nucleation. As a result, the setting time is reduced while chemical shrinkage is increased. Incorporating URP improves the early-age mechanical properties. When 7.5% URP is added, the highest compressive strength and flexural strength of cement mortar at a curing age of 3 d are 23.0 MPa and 3.7 MPa, respectively. The secondary hydration between the hydration product and reactive silica from URP contributes to gel formation and enhances mechanical property development. This research provides theoretical insights into utilizing recycled powder in cement-based materials and enhances our understanding of its impact on hydration kinetics.

Workability of Nanomodified Self-Compacting Geopolymer Concrete Based on Response Surface Method

Geopolymer concrete is more low-carbon and environmentally friendly than Portland cement concrete. Nanoparticle modification can help to improve the mechanical and durability performance of concrete, but due to its large specific surface area and high activity, it may deteriorate its workability. However, there is currently limited research on the effect of nanomodification on the workability of freshly mixed self-compacting geopolymer concrete (SCGC). This article conducted SCGC workability experiments using the response surface methodology, which included 29 different mixtures. The effects of nano-silica (NS), nano-calcium carbonate (NC), alkali content (N/B), and water cement ratio (W/B) on the workability of SCGC were studied. The experimental results show that the addition of NS and NC can reduce the slump expansion of SCGC, and the combination of the two significantly increases the amplitude of slump expansion with the change in nanomaterial content. An increase in N/B will reduce the expansion time and clearance value of SCGC. As N/B increases from 4% to 4.4%, the slump extension of SCGC decreases, and with a further increase in N/B, the slump extension increases significantly to 68.1 cm, which means that the slump extension of SCGC increases by 9.5% as N/B increases from 4.4 to 5. This study can provide a reference for optimizing the fresh performance of geopolymer concrete and improving the mechanism of nanomaterial-modified geopolymer concrete.

Investigation of the effect of urease bioadditives on porosity and water absorption of cement composites

The results of the application of the biomineralization process in concrete to improve concrete properties such as porosity and water absorption are presented. As a result of the research, an assessment of the activity of various bioadditives based on the Bacillus subtilis strain and isolates isolated from samples of chernozem soil of the Yelets district of the Lipetsk region was given.It was found that the immobilized bacteria slightly differ from the native form in terms of urease activity, however, when stored for more than 50 days. they maintain their activity at a high level, and native microorganisms lose their ability to function, reducing urease activity by 10 times practically to minimum values. It was also revealed that when using Portland cement of various types, there is a decrease in water absorption up to 30%, and porosity decreases up to 40%.The use of different types of fine aggregate also affects porosity, so when using the same parts of sand P1 and P2, porosity is lower than with a homogeneous fine aggregate.It was also noted that all samples had increased strength characteristics – compressive strength and bending strength by 15–25%, respectively. Thus, the use of bioadditives is optimal to achieve improved concrete characteristics.

Enhancing Mechanical Properties of Expansive Soil Through BOF Slag Stabilization: A Sustainable Alternative to Conventional Methods

This study investigates the stabilization of expansive soil using basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag, an eco-friendly steel by-product, as an alternative to conventional stabilizers like ordinary Portland cement. By evaluating varying concentrations of BOF slag and lime as an activator, the research aims to improve the soil’s mechanical properties, addressing issues like low bearing capacity and high shrink–swell potential. Bentonite clay was treated with different BOF slag ratios (10%, 20%, and 30%) and activated with lime (1%, 3%, and 5%). After mixing and compaction, samples were cured and tested for unconfined compressive strength (UCS), shear wave velocity (BE), and free swell. Microscopic analyses (SEM) provided insight into structural changes post-stabilization, revealing improved properties with increased BOF and lime concentrations. Notably, stabilization with 30% BOF slag and 5% lime achieves a compressive strength of 810 kPa, meeting the minimum subgrade soil stabilization requirement (700 kPa) set by the Federal Highway Administration. This research underscores the potential of BOF slag as a sustainable and practical material for bentonite clay stabilization, offering a promising solution for enhancing soil properties while contributing to environmental sustainability through industrial by-product repurposing.

Mechanical Performance and Life Cycle Assessment of Soil Stabilization Solutions for Unpaved Roads from Northeast Brazil

This article presents the results of laboratory tests conducted to identify the granulometric stabilization and chemical improvement techniques used in an experimental segment of the unpaved BR-030 highway in the Maraú Peninsula, Bahia. The segment was designed to evaluate the performance of primary coating sections stabilized with sand, clayey gravel, reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP), and simple graded crushed stone (GCS), as well as chemically improved with Portland cement and hydrated lime. The laboratory campaign focused on mechanical resistance, resilient modulus, and permanent deformation tests. In this research, chemical improvement with the addition of 2% Portland cement presented the most promising results for potential application in the section of the BR-030 highway intended to remain unpaved. Additionally, a life cycle assessment (LCA) revealed that mechanical stabilization of the primary coating has the lowest environmental impacts, making it a suitable and sustainable option among stabilization methods.

Immobilization of arsenic wastes and retardation effect on cement hydration: Experimental and molecular dynamic analysis

AbstractThis work was designed to investigate the influence of arsenic dosage, variety on the mechanical properties, hydration, and solidification from the perspective of Portland cement (PC) performance evolution. The results demonstrate that using PC could solidify the arsenic wastes effectively, with arsenic leaching concentrations consistently below 5 mg/L. Arsenic wastes retard cement hydration, leading to a slower rate of hydrates formation, disrupting the calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) stacking structure, and thus detrimental to strength development especially at early age. The adverse effect is highly dependent on the arsenic variety. The insoluble calcium arsenate exhibits the least impact, while the arsenates show the largest challenging to immobilization due to the instability of hydrates. Molecular dynamic simulation indicates that arsenic can be chemically immobilized with Ca2+, and be physically adsorbed onto the positively charged C–S–H by forming As‐O···Ca···Si‐O units, accompanied by a significant reduction in adsorption energy by 46.5%. The arsenic solidification behavior provides a basis for the resource utilization of arsenic wastes in cementitious materials.

Evolution of CO2 Uptake Degree of Ordinary Portland Cement During Accelerated Aqueous Mineralisation

The utilisation of carbonation treatments to produce building materials is emerging as a valuable strategy to reduce CO2 emissions in the construction sector. It is of great importance to regulate the degree of carbonation when the mineralisation process is combined with hydration, as a high CO2 uptake may impede the development of adequate strength. A significant number of studies focus on attaining the maximum carbonation degree, with minimal attention paid to the examination of the evolution of CO2 uptake over the initial stages of the process. In this context, the present study aims to investigate the evolution of CO2 uptake over time during carbonation. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is employed as material, with aqueous carbonation selected as the mineralisation process. This investigation encompasses a range of carbonation durations, spanning from 5 to 40 min. The analysis of the evolution of the mineral composition with time demonstrated that the rate of the carbonation reaction accelerates in the initial minutes, resulting in the conversion of all the portlandite produced during the hydration process in the initial 10 min. Quantitative analysis of the carbonation degree indicated that the CO2 uptake at 40 min is equal to 19.1%, which is estimated to be approximately 70% of the maximum achievable value. By contributing to the understanding of the early carbonation mechanisms in aqueous conditions of OPC, this study provides valuable support for further investigation focused on the use of cement mineralisation processes to produce building materials.

Bond of FRP bars in fine‐grained alkali‐activated concrete

AbstractAlkali‐activated cement (AAC) is an alternative binder with a promising potential to replace ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and mitigate its environmental issues. The use of fiber‐reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforcements with AAC concrete enables the development of corrosion‐resistant, environmentally friendly reinforced concrete structures. Bond behavior is critical in reinforced concrete structures and must be thoroughly studied for such new alternative materials. This study employs pullout tests to investigate the bond behavior between FRP bars and fine‐grained AAC concrete. Three fine‐grained AAC concretes with low to high strength, glass and carbon FRP bars and wrapped, milled, and smooth surface treatments were examined. The effect of bar casting position was also investigated. The compressive strength showed a significant influence on the bond strength. An average bond strength of approximately 18 MPa was observed for both glass and carbon FRP bars when used with 65 MPa concrete. Both the glass and carbon FRP bars with wrapping showed a lower bond strength than their milled FRP bars counterparts. The carbon bars without surface preparation (smooth bars) resulted in a much lower bond strength, around 4 MPa. In terms of casting positions, the bars cast in the middle section of the concrete block showed a higher bond strength than those at the bottom and top.

Experimental Study on Mechanical Properties of Artificial Cores Saturated With Ice: An Analogical Simulation to Natural Gas Hydrate Bearing Sediments

ABSTRACTThis work takes the natural gas hydrate (NGH) reservoir in the Shenhu area at the South China Sea as the target. Using the quartz sand, calcite grains, and illite powder as the main mineral composites, and Portland cement as the bonding material, the host skeleton with similar porosity and mechanical properties to the target reservoir were prepared. Ice was used to simulate natural gas hydrates for their high similarity in mechanical properties and distributions within porous host. The ice saturation in the host skeleton is quantitatively controlled by the quality method. As an analogical simulation, artificial samples with different ice saturations were tested by uniaxial compression measurements and the Brazilian tensile tests, aiming to reveal the mechanical behavior of NGH sediments. The results indicated that the plasticity of the artificial sample increases and its damage form transitions from brittleness to ductility as the ice saturation increases. The effects of free water and ice on the strength of saturated samples are quite different. The free water tends to reduce the strength of the sample due to illite hydration and change of internal friction. The bonding effect of ice tends to increase the strength of the sample, while the ice could also reduce the internal friction. When the ice saturation is larger than 30%, the compressive and tensile strengths of the sample increase with ice saturation, which could be regressed as yc = 2.2628S + 0.8322, and yt = 0.411S + 0.0273, respectively. The constitutive model was developed based on the equivalent medium theory and the D‐P criterion, which could describe the experiment data well with deviations less than 10%.

Experimental Study On Self-Compacting Concrete Mix Design By Using Yucca Zeolite

This report aims to present the experimental investigation on mix proportioning of normal concrete and self-compacting concrete with yucca zeolite. The study area comprises of ordinary portland cement of grade 53,mix proportioning of normal concrete for grade of concrete M40, M30 and M20 whereas mix proportioning for self-compacting concrete for grade of concrete M40, M30 ,M20.The parameters considered are cement content, Water cement ratio i.e. for normal concrete 0.4, 0.42, 0.45 and for self-compacting concrete 0.62, 0.44, 0.43 respectively. To reduce the risk of shrinkage, frost attack and corrosion of concrete, yucca zeolite as a mineral admixture and to increase the bond strength techno plast S 300 as a super plasticizer is added. The responses of material testing, normal concrete tests that includes slump flow test and compressive strength test recorded. Also, tests on self-compacting concrete recorded from slump flow test, J ring test, V funnel test, L box test, U box test, Rheological parameters, Compressive strength at 7 and 28 days. The various properties of SCC are ascertained with the IS code 1199:2018 [part 6] IS code 456:2000, IS code 10262:2019.