Raw Duck Meat Research Articles

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Virus Infection in Cats, South Korea, 2023.

In July 2023, cases of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) were reported at 2 shelters for stray cats in Seoul, South Korea. The cause of infection was suspected to be improperly sterilized raw food made from domestic duck meat, which was manufactured in South Korea. All viruses isolated from cats at the shelters and from the raw food belonged to HPAI A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b. The gene constellation of all viruses was most similar to that of viruses isolated in Korea in November 2022. Of note, the viruses isolated from infected cats harbored mutations E627K or D701N in polymerase basic 2, which are indicative of adaptation to mammals. Postmortem examination revealed systemic pathologic lesions and the presence of widespread virus in different tissues. Thus, consumption of raw duck meat contaminated with HPAI virus likely caused systemic symptoms and death in cats, indicating the introduction of mammal-adapted mutations of the virus.

Investigating the impact of lipid oxidation on the duck odorous smell during storage and reheating based on lipidomics

In the actual production of duck meat, the cooking time for marinated and sliced duck products is around 30 min. Before consumption, it is recommended to use a water bath for reheating at 75 °C for 10 min. However, many consumers reflect that after reheating, there will be an unpleasant smell, affecting the quality of food. Therefore, to investigate the effects of lipid oxidation on the duck odorous smell during heat treatment and reheating, lipid oxidation, sensory evaluation and lipidomics were performed on raw duck meat, 90 °C processed, and reheated cooked duck meat stored at 4 ± 1 °C for 3 and 7 days, respectively. The results showed that the duck odorous smell increased after heat treatment and reheating. A total of 26 lipid subclasses and 519 lipid molecules were identified in duck meat based on lipidomics. Phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) in duck meat phospholipids played an important role in the production of duck odorous smell. These findings may contribute in reducing duck odorous smell by targeted inhibition of lipid oxidation.

Comparative Characterization of Key Volatile Compounds in Slow- and Fast-Growing Duck Raw Meat Based on Widely Targeted Metabolomics.

The volatile aroma compounds in raw duck meat strongly affect consumers' purchase decisions and they vary among breeds with different growth rates. In this study, slow-growing (SG) Liancheng White and fast-growing (FG) Cherry Valley ducks were selected, and their volatile compounds were characterized using electric nose and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Furthermore, a widely targeted metabolomics approach was used to investigate the metabolites associated with volatile compounds. The results showed that hexanal, nonanal, octanal, heptanal, and 2-pentylfuran were abundantly present in duck meat, regardless of the breed. The higher nonanal and octanal rates contributed to the fatty and fruity aroma in SG meat than FG meat, while FG meat had a mushroom note resulting from higher octenol. Furthermore, widely targeted metabolomics showed a lower carnitine content in SG meat, which might promote lipid deposition to produce more octanal and nonanal. Higher sugar and amino acid contents led to a meaty aroma, whereas more trimethylamine N-oxide may generate a fishy note in SG meat. Taken together, this study characterized the raw duck meat aroma and provided the basic mechanism of the formation of the key volatile compound.

Influence of mixture of spices on phospholipid molecules during water-boiled salted duck processing based on shotgun lipidomics

This study aimed to evaluate the influence of spices on individual phospholipid molecules of water-boiled salted duck (WSD) processing. Shotgun lipidomics was used to determine the structure of individual phospholipid molecules in raw duck meat and changes of phospholipids in processed-WSD with or without spices. A total of 118 phospholipid molecules were determined during the whole processing. Spices had a significant effect on the changes of most individual phospholipid molecules during the processing, but the overall effect on the phospholipid profile was not obvious. Nine phospholipid molecule markers were screened by partial least squares discriminant analysis, which can be used to distinguish with or without spice treatment. The effect of spices on most phospholipid molecules began on the first day of dry-ripening, and gradually became more obvious in the subsequent processing. Spice’s main function was to delay the degradation of individual phospholipid molecules.

Changes in the phospholipid molecular species in water-boiled salted duck during processing based on shotgun lipidomics

Knowledge of the changes in the phospholipid molecular species during processing is helpful to understanding the complicated mechanisms of lipid degradation and transformation. The shotgun lipidomics strategy was utilized to analyze the phospholipid (PL) molecular species in raw Pekin duck and the subsequent dynamic changes that occur during the processing of water-boiled salted duck (WSD). Only 110 PL molecular species have been identified in raw duck meat, while a total of 119 PL molecular species were identified during processing, including 33 phosphatidylcholines, 22 phosphatidylethanolamines, 13 phosphatidylglycerols, 18 phosphatidylinositols and 33 phosphatidylserines. Most of the content of PL molecular species gradually decreased during processing, while the content of most of the lysophospholipids (LPLs) increased. After reaching a maximum, the LPLs were obviously reduced during the 3 d of dry-ripening. The results showed that processing techniques, such as dry-curing, dry-ripening and boiling, had a significant effect on the changes in the PLs in WSD. We further screened 10 PL molecular markers, which can be used to distinguish different operating units.

Volatile flavor changes responding to heat stress-induced lipid oxidation in duck meat.

The effects of heat stress on lipid oxidation and volatile compounds in duck meat were investigated. To simulate heat stress on ducks, room-temperature was controlled at 25°C, except that a raised temperature of 32°C for 8hr each day was conducted. After stress for 1 and 3weeks, respectively, the birds were euthanized and the breast meat was separated to evaluate the changes of lipid oxidation and volatile flavor compounds. Results showed that heat stress significantly increased the lipoxygenase activity and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, and reduced the contents of free unsaturated fatty acids in duck meat. A total of 85 volatile flavor compounds were detected by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Interestingly, when exposed to heat stress, the volatiles generation in raw duck meat was promoted, which was then inhibited after cooking. These data reveal meat oxidative changes and flavor loss caused by heat stress and provide useful information for potential labels and meat flavor preservation against the negative effects of heat stress.

Studies on the quality of duck meat sausages during refrigeration.

Duck farming is on the raise in the current scenario, but processed products from duck meat are still uncommon to find. Investigating the duck meat qualities during storage will provide information to enhance duck meat utilization. Development of ready-to-eat and ready-to-cook duck meat products is expected to increase and improve non-chicken meat-based protein. The Study was aimed to evaluate the changes in quality characteristics of duck meat sausages preserved by refrigeration (7 ± 1 °C). Duck meat sausages were prepared by utilizing raw and partially cooked duck meat with addition of soy flour at 10% level as a binder. Different quality characteristics like physical and chemical characteristics, proximate composition, and organoleptic characteristics were evaluated. Cooking loss of partially cooked meat sausages was lower than raw duck meat sausages, whereas emulsion stability and 2-thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values of raw duck meat sausages were lesser than partially cooked meat sausages. Cooking loss and emulsion stability decreased in both types of meat sausages, while, 2-TBA values increased as refrigerated storage progressed for 14 days. Percent moisture content of raw duck meat sausages was higher than partially cooked meat sausages, which decreased in both types of meat sausages as refrigerated storage progressed for 14 days. Percent crude protein (CP) and percent ether extract (EE) content of partially cooked duck meat sausages were higher than raw duck meat sausages. Regardless of type of meat used, refrigerated storage of sausages increased CP and EE up to 10th day but decreased upon further storage up to 14th day. Organoleptic scores for raw duck meat sausages were higher than partially cooked duck meat sausages and all the scores decreased with an increase in the storage period. However the scores were within the acceptable limits. The findings prove that, duck meat can be effectively acclaimed as an alternative avenue to meet the escalating protein demand in the form of ready-to-eat product. The quality of sausages is also retained during refrigerated storage.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Content of Breast and Leg’s Meat of Indonesian Native Duck

Duck's leg and breast of Indonesian native duck were analized in laboratory to determine polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) such as naphthalene, acenaphtene, phenentrene, flourantene, pyrene, benzoantrasene and perylene. The result showed that naphthalene, flourantene, pyrene, benzoantrasene and perylene in leg's duck was higher than breast duck. Total fat of legs (5.87%) were higher than breast (3.31%). This result showed that total fat of raw duck meat influence PAH formation. Antioxidant activity of leg was higher than breast's duck (8.79% : 5.1%). This result showed that endogenous antioxidant did not able to prevent PAH formation.

Comparative Study of Intramuscular Phospholipid Molecular Species in Traditional Chinese Duck Meat Products

Composition of intramuscular lipids, phospholipid classes and phospholipid molecular species in traditional Chinese duck meat products was investigated. Free fatty acids and phospholipids were identified and quantified by gas and high performance liquid chromatography, and phospholipid molecular species were determined by mass spectrometry. The results showed that raw duck meat had high quantities of phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylcholine. The percentages of phospholipid classes decreased during three kinds of processing of duck meat products. A selective degradation of phospholipid molecular species with polyunsaturated fatty acids was found in dry-cured duck, but was not found in roasted and water-boiled duck products.

Composition of intramuscular phospholipids and free fatty acids in three kinds of traditional Chinese duck meat products

Composition of intramuscular phospholipids and free fatty acids in 3 kinds of traditional Chinese duck meat products (dry-cured duck, roasted duck, and water-boiled salted duck) was investigated. Phospholipids were identified and quantified by HPLC combined with ultraviolet and evaporative light scattering detectors. The types and quantities of free fatty acids and fatty acids derived from phospholipids were analyzed by capillary gas chromatography. The results showed that raw duck meat had high quantities of phosphatidyl-ethanolamine and phosphatidylcholine (28.1 and 64.7% of total phospholipids, respectively), which contained high percentages of polyunsaturated fatty acids. The percentages of total phospholipids, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylcholine decreased during processing, with a concomitant increase in quantities of free fatty acids. A selective degradation of fatty acids distributions of phospholipids was found through the dry-cured duck processing, but was not found during the roasted and water-boiled duck processing.

Changes of intramuscular phospholipids and free fatty acids during the processing of Nanjing dry-cured duck

In this study, changes of intramuscular phospholipids and free fatty acids were tracked during the processing of Nanjing dry-cured duck. Phospholipids were identified and quantified by high performance liquid chromatography combined with UV and evaporative light scattering detectors. The types and quantities of free fatty acids and fatty acids derived from phospholipids were analyzed by capillary gas chromatography. The results showed that raw duck meat had high quantities of phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylcholine (37.95% and 54.07% of total phospholipids, respectively), which contained high percentages of polysaturated fatty acids. The percentages of total phospholipids, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylcholine decreased during processing, with a concomitant increase in quantities of free fatty acids. The lipolysis of phospholipids, especially phosphatidylethanolamine is the main contributor to the increase of free fatty acids.