Raw Animal Products Research Articles

Prevalence, risk factors and antimicrobial susceptibility profile of <i>Salmonella</i> isolated from dogs of Ambo, Bako and Gojo towns of West Shoa, Ethiopia

Salmonella is the most known zoonotic bacterial agent, which produces salmonellosis in animals as wells as in humans. The objectives of this study were to estimate the prevalence, to determine antimicrobial susceptibility and to assess risk factors associated with Salmonella shedding in dogs in selected towns of West Shoa Zone, Oromia, Ethiopia. Using a cross-sectional design, a total of 438 rectal swab samples were collected from randomly selected dogs for isolation and identification of Salmonella using standard procedures. A questionnaire survey was also administered. The results showed that 48 (11.0%, 95%, [CI]: 8.2% - 14.3 %) dogs were positive for Salmonella. The occurrenceof Salmonella was 10.9% (26/238), 11.6% (15/129) and 9.9% (7/71) in Ambo, Bako and Gojo towns respectively. Salmonella shedding was significantly higher in older dogs (15.0%) than younger ones (6.1 %) (P 0.05). Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that the odds of isolation of Salmonella was significantly higher in old than young dogs (OR): 2.6, 95% CI: 1.3-5.6, P=0.007) and in dogs eating mixed type of feeds (raw animal products, household leftover) than cooked feed (OR = 9.0, 95% CI: 1.2 – 68.1, P=0.033). There was also a significant difference between kebeles of the study areas in that Salmonella isolation was nearly nine times higher in Bako Kebele 02 (P=0.005) as compared to Ambo kebele 03. Salmonella isolates have developed the highest level of resistance for ampicillin (100%), tetracycline (93.3%) and streptomycin (80.0 %), however, all isolates were susceptible to Norfloxacin. The occurrence of Salmonella, most of which resistant to commonly used antimicrobials, in rectal swab samples show the potential threat dogs may pose to public health in the study area.Keywords: Antimicrobial Resistance; Dog; Ethiopia; Prevalence; Risk factor; Salmonella

Cross-sectional survey of brucellosis and associated risk factors in the livestock-wildlife interface area of Nechisar National Park, Ethiopia.

A cross-sectional survey was carried out to investigate the seroprevalence of ovine and bovine brucellosis in the livestock-wildlife interface area of Nechisar National Park, Ethiopia. Furthermore, producer's knowledge about brucellosis and its zoonotic potential was assessed using a structured questionnaire. A total of 268 cattle and 246 goat sera were collected from 50 herds and 46 flocks and subjected to Rose Bengal test (RBT) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in parallel to detect anti-Brucella species antibodies. Positive reactions were further confirmed with compliment fixation test (CFT). Flock and herd level seroprevalence rate was 12.8% (95% CI 4.8-25.7) and 32.0% (95% CI 19.5-46.7) in goats and cattle, respectively. An overall animal-level seroprevalence of 4.5% (95% CI 2.25-7.86) and 9.7% (95% CI 6.44-13.89) was recorded for goats and cattle, respectively. Seroprevalence showed an increasing trend with age, where adult cattle > 2years. Goats (> 1year) recorded relatively higher seroprevalence, but the differences were not statistically significant. Similarly, female cattle and goats recorded a relatively higher seroprevalence, 11 and 5.6%, respectively, compared to males but the difference was not significant. However, a significant (P< 0.01) variation of seroprevalence was noted for parity (bovine), higher in animals in second parity, and abortion history, in both species, higher in animals that experienced abortion. Interviews revealed lack of awareness about brucellosis and food safety related to the zoonotic potential from consuming raw animal products (milk and meat). Ninety-eight percent of respondents did not consider handling abortion material is risky, and only a very low proportion (8%, n = 50) was able to mention limited zoonotic diseases (anthrax and Taenia cysticercosis) could be transmissible to people. The study indicated that brucellosis is endemic in domestic animals in the interface area and calls for further broad epidemiological investigation of the disease in livestock, human and wildlife following 'one health' unified research approaches beside enhancing public awareness.

Application of real-time PCR for DNA identification of ruminants in raw animal products

According with current regulations it is possible export of processed animal proteins produced from tissues other animals than ruminants. In order to ensure appropriate control studies were undertaken to adopt of method real-time PCR used for analysis of processed products of animal origin. The material consisted of raw animal by-products of beef, pork and poultry. In the assays mitochondrial DNA was used. Modified method allows to detect the DNA of ruminants at the level of 0.025%. Based on obtained results of the validation studies were found that the real-time PCR method can be used in routine tests for identification of ruminant DNA in raw animal by-products..

Review on Epidemiology of Camel and Human Brucellosis in East Africa, Igad Member Countries

Camel production is expanding in pastoral areas of the Eat African region {IGAD member countries} as a result of recurrent drought and its less susceptibility to drought relative to other livestock. It is an important domestic animal and the source of milk during dry season. Camel brucellosis is prevalent in the region. From review high prevalence of human brucellosis is observed with prevalence ranging between 1 to 46.5%, 2.15 to 60%, 5.8 to 17% and 2.15 to 7.5% by ELISA, RBPT, SAT and CFT respectively; whereas 3.1 to 40.5%, 2 to 39.9% and 1.6 to 7.6% by ELISA, RBPT and CFT in camels respectively. It is transmissible from animal to humans, causing acute febrile illness, undulant fever (inter¬mittent or remittent fever) which may persist for weeks or months accompanied by malaise, anorexia and prostration. Brucella species can enter mammalian hosts through skin abrasions or cuts, the conjunctiva, the respiratory tract, the gastrointestinal tract and through reproductive tracts. It has economic importance and public health hazard particularly to pastoralist community because of a widespread traditional habit of consumption of raw animal products and close contact with livestock including camels. Since brucellosis has no effective treatment both in human and livestock; vaccination, hygiene and awareness creation are the best control and prevention strategies in the region. Therefore, the objective of the seminar paper was to review-the epidemiology of brucellosis in camel and human in East Africa with emphasis on Ethiopia.

Diagnosis of Cattle Brucellosis by PCR and Serological Methods: Comparison of Diagnostic Tests

Brucellosis is one of the most widespread zoonotic diseases globally. This chronic, contagious disease mainly transmitted from cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and camels through direct contact with blood, placenta, fetuses or uterine secretions or through consumption of contaminated raw animal products such as unpasteurized milk or cheese. Brucellosis is endemic in Iran. The aim of this study was to compare the molecular and serological tests for detection of brucellosis. In a cross-sectional study, the blood specimens were collected from 92 unvaccinated cattle during the time period September 2014 to July, 2015.. The serum samples were aliquoted and stored at −20°C until tested. The brucellosis diagnosis was established by indirect ELISA (iELISA), Rose Bengal, 2ME, Wright and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. In this investigation frequency of brucellosis by using Wright, 2ME, Rose Bengal, and iELISA methods were 42.3% (n= 39), 50% (n= 71), 78.2% (n=72), 75% (n=69), 86.2% (n=76), respectively. The specificity and sensitivity of iELISA was higher than the other tests. The 72 positive Rose Bengal samples in PCR were shown to be positive by both genes and 20 negative Rose Bengal samples were shown negative by both samples. Prevention of brucellosis mainly involves education, food quality and personal hygiene. Efforts should be made by responsible authorities. The results of this study showed specificity and sensitivity of indirect ELISA (iELISA) test is more than other methods. So, brucellosis diagnosis using of this test is recommended.

Adherence of Heart Transplant Recipients to Prescribed Medication and Recommended Lifestyle Habits.

Nonadherence may cause severe health problems in heart transplant (HTx) recipients. The present study aimed to investigate adherence to prescribed medication and recommended lifestyle habits in post-HTx patients and to assess associations between adherence, quality of life (QOL), and psychological well-being. A questionnaire package was sent to all HTx patients from our clinic (n = 858) to answer questions anonymously on medication adherence, dietary recommendations (avoidance of raw animal products and ice cream), pet keeping (risk of zoonosis), anxiety and depression, QOL, and posttraumatic stress disorders. Of the contacted patients, 524 (61%) responded and 505 fulfilled the inclusion criteria (age ≥18 years and ability to understand German). Of the study participants, 72.4% reported taking their medications very correctly, 72.2% stated consuming alcohol less often than once a week, 58.3% performed physical exercise at least once a week, one-third reported eating nonrecommended foods, 22.1% stated pet keeping, and 4.3% reported smoking. Adherence to prescribed medication was positively associated with age ( P < .001) and mental QOL ( P = .015) but was unrelated to eating nonrecommended foods ( P > .05). Depressiveness correlated inversely with physical QOL ( r = -0.232; P < .01) and mental QOL ( r = -0.411; P < .01). Stress disorders and minor stressful events were reported by 7.8% and 46.6%, respectively. Stress disorders correlated inversely with mental QOL ( r = -0.282; P < .01) and physical QOL ( r = -0.422; P < .01). Many HTx patients adhere to prescribed medications and health advice. Nevertheless, nonadherence is a problem, especially in younger HTx patients, indicating the need for a nonadherence crisis intervention program for long-term HTx patients.

Survey of owner motivations and veterinary input of owners feeding diets containing raw animal products.

BackgroundThe practice of feeding of diets containing raw animal products (RAP) to pets (dogs and cats) is discouraged by veterinary organizations and governmental public health organizations. Nevertheless, the practice of feeding RAP to pets is increasing in popularity. Pet owner motivations for feeding RAP diets to pets have not been explored and the benefits of RAP diets remain largely anecdotal. We hypothesized that pet owners feeding RAP diets would not rely on veterinary advice in choosing their pet’s diet. We also hypothesized that these owners would have lower levels of trust in veterinary advice with respect to nutrition relative to pet owners not feeding RAP.MethodsAn anonymous web-based survey was developed to identify pet owner motivations for feeding RAP diets, and to characterize the veterinarian-client relationships of individuals feeding RAP diets.ResultsThere were 2,337 respondents and 2,171 completed surveys. Of survey respondents, 804 reported feeding RAP at the time of the survey. While 20% of pet owners feeding RAP relied on online resources to determine what or how much RAP to feed, only 9% reported consulting with a veterinarian in making decisions about feeding RAP. Pet owners feeding RAP reported lower levels of trust in veterinary advice both ‘in general’ and ‘with respect to nutrition’ than pet owners not feeding RAP. Most pet owners reported that a discussion regarding their pet’s nutrition does not occur at every veterinary appointment.DiscussionPet owners feeding a RAP diet have lower trust in veterinary advice than pet owners not feeding a RAP diet. Owners feeding RAP are more reliant on online resources than their own veterinarian in deciding what and how much RAP to feed. Pet owners perceive that nutrition is not discussed at most veterinary appointments. Therefore, there is room for improvement in the veterinarian-client communication with regards to nutrition.

Review on Epidemiology of Camel and Human Brucellosis in East Africa, Igad Member Countries

Camel production is expanding in pastoral areas of the Eat African region {IGAD member countries} as a result of recurrent drought and its less susceptibility to drought relative to other livestock. It is an important domestic animal and the source of milk during dry season. Camel brucellosis is prevalent in the region. From review high prevalence of human brucellosis is observed with prevalence ranging between 1 to 46.5%, 2.15 to 60%, 5.8 to 17% and 2.15 to 7.5% by ELISA, RBPT, SAT and CFT respectively; whereas 3.1 to 40.5%, 2 to 39.9% and 1.6 to 7.6% by ELISA, RBPT and CFT in camels respectively. It is transmissible from animal to humans, causing acute febrile illness, undulant fever (inter¬mittent or remittent fever) which may persist for weeks or months accompanied by malaise, anorexia and prostration. Brucella species can enter mammalian hosts through skin abrasions or cuts, the conjunctiva, the respiratory tract, the gastrointestinal tract and through reproductive tracts. It has economic importance and public health hazard particularly to pastoralist community because of a widespread traditional habit of consumption of raw animal products and close contact with livestock including camels. Since brucellosis has no effective treatment both in human and livestock; vaccination, hygiene and awareness creation are the best control and prevention strategies in the region. Therefore, the objective of the seminar paper was to review-the epidemiology of brucellosis in camel and human in East Africa with emphasis on Ethiopia.

Diagnostic Approach to Brucellosis

Brucellosis is a worldwide zoonosis with a high degree of morbidity in humans. According to WHO data about 500,000 cases of this disease are registered in the world every year [1,2]. The presence of brucellosis in India was first established early in the previous century and since then has been reported from almost all states [3]. It is mainly transmitted from cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and camels through direct contact with blood, placenta, fetuses or uterine secretions, or through consumption of contaminated raw animal products (especially unpasteurized milk and soft cheese). Furthermore, brucellosis is the most common bac terial laboratory-acquired infection worldwide [4]. The disease primarily presents as fever of unknown origin with multiple clinical signs and symptoms. Patients regularly suffer serious focal complications such as spondylitis, neurobrucellosis or Brucella endocarditis [5]. The clinical picture is not specific and laboratory testing should support the diagnosis. Presumptive diagnosis of brucellosis can be made by the use of several serological tests to Brucella antibodies, but the “gold standard” remains isolation and identification of the bacterium. Despite the vigorous attempt for more than one century to come up with a definitive diagnostic technique for brucellosis, diagnosis still relies on the combination of several tests to avoid false negative results [6]. Certain newer molecular techniques have also been introduced for the diagnosis of brucellosis.

Prevalence of Salmonella in raw animal products in Ethiopia: a meta-analysis.

BackgroundThe contributions of animal products to human salmonellosis differ across countries, and source attribution is a major step in prioritizing control measures. The objectives of this study were to estimate the prevalence of Salmonella in raw animal products in Ethiopia by using meta-analytical methods.ResultsThe odds of Salmonella contaminated meat was more than twice higher in markets than in slaughter houses [Odds ratio (OR) = 2.25 (95% Confidence Interval [CI] = 1.75, 2.89)]. The source species significantly affected meat contamination in slaughter houses (P < 0.05) but not in the markets (P > 0.05). The pooled estimates of Salmonella contaminated goat carcasses, beef carcasses, minced beef and milk were 3.86%, 4.53%, 8.34% and 10.76% respectively.ConclusionsThe estimates demonstrate the extent of contamination, and imply the need for safety intervention measures to reduce the risks of contamination of animal products and human illnesses.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13104-015-1127-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Risk assessment of Listeria monocytogenes in poultry and beef

Purpose – A quantitative microbiological risk assessment (QMRA) was developed to estimate the probability of getting listeriosis as a consequence of chicken and beef consumption in Chile. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – As a first step a deterministic retail-to-home model was constructed for the Chilean susceptible population, including storage, cross-contamination and cooking. Next, two probabilistic models were developed, including variability and/or the uncertainty of some of the parameters. The probabilistic models were analyzed by Monte Carlo simulations with 100,000 iterations. Findings – Of the total susceptible population used in the model (2.81 million people), the deterministic model estimated 11 and two listeriosis cases because of beef and poultry consumption, respectively and the variability model estimated a mean of 322 and 7,546 cases for beef and poultry consumption, respectively. The uncertainty analysis showed large ranges, with realistic estimates made with an initial concentration of Listeria monocytogenes of 0.04-1 CFU/g and a dose-response parameter r ranging from 10-14 to 10-10. Research limitations/implications – The lack of information was the major limitation of the model, so the generation of it has to be a priority in Chile for developing less uncertain risk assessments in the future. Practical implications – Raw animal products can be the cause of listeriosis cases if they are not stored, cooked and/or handled properly. Consumer education seems to be an essential factor for disease prevention. Originality/value – This is the first QMRA made in Chile, and also the first study of listeriosis in non-processed meat.

Seroprevalence, Detection of DNA in Blood and Milk, and Genotyping ofToxoplasma gondiiin a Goat Population in Italy

Toxoplasma gondii is the causative agent of a major zoonosis with cosmopolitan distribution and is known to be transmitted mainly by the ingestion of undercooked or raw animal products. Drinking unpasteurized goat's milk is a risk factor associated with human toxoplasmosis. However, very little is known about the excretion of DNA in goat milk. Aim of the present study was to determine the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection using a modified agglutination test (MAT), to detect T. gondii DNA by nested-PCR (n-PCR) in samples of blood and milk from seropositive goats, and to genotype DNA isolates using 11 molecular markers in 127 adult lactating goats from 6 farms in Italy. Positive MAT results were found in 60.6% of goats while 13% of blood and milk samples from seropositive goats were positive to n-PCR. A kappa coefficient of 1 indicated a perfect agreement between blood and milk n-PCR. Genetic characterization of isolates revealed the occurrence of genotype III (n = 7), genotype I (n = 1), and atypical genotypes with hints for genotype I (n = 2). Our results suggest that the risk of excretion of Toxoplasma tachyzoites might frequently occur in milk of seropositive goats testing positive to n-PCR on blood.

A High Prevalence of Tuberculosis among Dairy Farm Workers in Addis Ababa and its Surroundings

Background: Dairy farm workers constitute the interface for inter-transmission of human tuberculosis to cattle and zoonotic tuberculosis to humans. Animal tuberculosis is endemic in Ethiopia, where human tuberculosis is also a large concern. Objective: The main objective of the study was to determine the prevalence of tuberculosis and associated factors. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among dairy farm workers, between February 2010 to January 2011, in Addis Ababa and the surrounding districts. Individuals with symptom complex of tuberculosis were subjected to physical examination, radiographic and laboratory investigations. Sputum samples were collected and processed by culture on Lowenstein Jensen media. Data were entered, cleaned and explored using SPSS version 16. Logistic regression was fitted; odds ratios, 95% confidence interval and p-values were calculated to test associations between variables. Ethical clearance and written informed consents were obtained. Results: Out of the total 256 voluntary participants, there were 12 tuberculosis suspects and 3 tuberculosis cases. The prevalence of tuberculosis was found to be 1.17%. Participants who consumed raw animal products were about 4 times more likely to manifest the symptom complex of tuberculosis than those consuming cooked products (Adjusted OR=3.8, 95% CI: 1.08-13.29). Only 20.3% of the participants knew the main routes of tuberculosis transmission. Those who had knowledge about the routes of transmission were 3.7 times more likely to have the symptom complex of tuberculosis compared to those who did not know the routes of transmission (Adjusted OR=3.7, 95% CI: 1.12-12.23). Conclusion and recommendation: The prevalence of tuberculosis among dairy farm workers in Addis Ababa and surrounding areas is higher than the national average. Policy makers and stakeholders are encouraged to design a program aiming for early case detection and prevention of spread of tuberculosis to all susceptible hosts including animals.

Brucella Peritonitis in Peritoneal Dialysis: A Case Report and Review of the Literature

Brucellosis is a zoonotic infection that humans contract usually by ingestion of unpasteurized milk and milk products or by direct contact with raw infected animal products. Infection is endemic in many countries, including Turkey. Being a systemic disease, brucellosis may affect almost any part of the body. The peritoneum is a site rarely involved in brucellosis. Most peritonitis episodes involving Brucella species have been spontaneous cases reported in cirrhotic patients with ascites. To our knowledge, the literature contains only 5 cases of Brucella peritonitis related to continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Here, we report Brucella peritonitis in a continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patient, and we discuss the relevant literature.

Evaluation of Pet‐Related Management Factors and the Risk of Salmonella spp. Carriage in Pet Dogs from Volunteer Households in Ontario (2005–2006)

The purpose of this study was to determine pet-related management factors that may be associated with the presence of Salmonella spp. in feces of pet dogs from volunteer households. From October 2005 until May 2006, 138 dogs from 84 households in Ontario were recruited to participate in a cross-sectional study. Five consecutive daily fecal samples were collected from each dog and enrichment culture for Salmonella spp. was performed. A higher than expected number of the dogs (23.2%; 32/138) had at least one fecal sample positive for Salmonella, and 25% (21/84) of the households had at least one dog shedding Salmonella. Twelve serotypes of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica were identified, with the predominant serotypes being Typhimurium (33.3%; 13/39), Kentucky (15.4%; 6/39), Brandenburg (15.4%; 6/39) and Heidelberg (12.8%; 5/39). Univariable logistic regression models were created with a random effect for household to account for clustering. Statistically significant risk factors for a dog testing positive included having contact with livestock, receiving a probiotic in the previous 30 days, feeding a commercial or homemade raw food diet, feeding raw meat and eggs, feeding a homemade cooked diet, and having more than one dog in the household. In two-variable models that controlled for feeding raw food, the non-dietary variables were no longer statistically significant. These results highlight the potential public health risk of including raw animal products in canine diets.

Encephalitis Caused by Angiostrongylus cantonensis after Eating Raw Frogs Mixed with Wine as a Health Supplement

Angiostrongylus cantonensis also known as the rat lungworm, is prevalent in the Pacific Islands and southeast Asia and is the most common cause of eosinophilic meningitis in humans. Although frogs and toads are known as paratenic hosts of A. cantonensis, they are rarely reported as the infectious source of human angiostrongyliasis. We report a case of encephalitis caused by Angiostrongylus cantonensis after eating raw frogs mixed with wine as a health supplement. Prednisolone at a dose of 1 mg/kg/day was prescribed for 14 days successfully. We advise that travelers and residents of endemic areas should avoid eating raw frogs and a public caution on the danger of eating raw wild animal products or the whole animal is recommended to alleviate such accidental infection.

Blowing chunks: Fear Factor, reality television and abjection as a disciplinary practice

Whilst the hit NBC reality television show Fear Factor (2001–2006) resembles other examples of the genre, combining a series of tasks (or ‘stunts’) within a game-show-oriented format, the extent to which it works to generate specific kinds of contestant and spectatorial responses as a result of these stunts offers a point of departure. The show's most notorious stunts are those involving the consumption of a variety of, to Western stomachs, disgusting foodstuffs (mammal entrails and offal, dried insects, raw animal products and so forth), wherein contestants are rewarded for the ingestion of such material, and penalized for vomiting it up again. This article considers the motivations for Fear Factor's use of abjection and examines the ways in which the use of abject material functions both as a way of punishing or humiliating the contestants and, crucially, of delighting the audience. This disciplinary activity would seem to offer another way to consider the role that abjection plays in constituting the subject; a situation in which abjection, a place where ‘meaning collapses’, functions also as a disciplinary activity committed to the generation of knowledge. Thus, this article considers the function of abjection in reality programming in relation to discipline, to spectatorial pleasure and therefore to broader hegemonic structures.

Presence and importance of mycotoxins in pig feed

Mycotoxins present a significant problem in the diet of pigs. Secondary metabolites of fungi are toxic matter that have a negative effect on health and the performance of animals, as well as on the quality of their products. The creating of mycotosins is a complex process and it is difficult to predict which toxin will be produced and in which concentration. Food is most often contaminated by low concentrations of different mycotoxins (aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, fumonisinsi and zearalenone) which cause a series of undesired effects, depending on the amount that the animal has ingested into the organism. Mycotoxin interactions in the organism are complex, and they can have antagonistic, synergistic or a joint effect, depending on the combination and quantity in which they appear. The pig is a domestic animal which is most sensitive to the effects of mycotoxins. Long-term consumption of feed contaminated with mycotoxins results in a decline in production, a deterioration of the general health and reproductive disorders. One of the most important negative effects in pigs which receive low doses of mycotoxins in the longterm, is immunosuppression. Mycotoxins present very stable links that remain in raw materials and animal products for a long time and thus pose a major health risk for humans. .

Brucellosis in humans: why is it so elusive?

Brucella spp. are small, slow-growing, Gram-negative coccobacilli that are responsible for brucellosis, the most common zoonotic disease worldwide. Brucellosis is a notifiable disease in most countries. Brucellosis is also considered as an occupational, laboratory and travel-acquired disease. Brucella spp. are transmitted through consumption of raw animal products (food-borne brucellosis) and animal contact. They may be spread through droplets in the air; they are traditionally classified as a class B bioterrorism agent. Brucellosis incidents have been reported in relation to domestic animals. Brucella strains have been isolated from terrestrial and marine mammals. Brucella melitensis, B. suis and B. abortus differ in host range, pathogenicity and virulence. B. canis infections have rarely been reported. Current global trends on the incidence of brucellosis are reviewed. Brucellosis is often overlooked and can mimic other conditions; it may be acute, subacute or chronic in presentation, and may involve various body sites. Recent studies on endocarditis, osteoarticular, haematological, neurological and other involvements are reviewed. Relapses in brucellosis should also be considered. Collaboration between the microbiologist and the clinician is important for diagnosis, since diagnosis of brucellosis is based on laboratory testing by serology and, ultimately by culture, in the context of clinical presentation and history of recent or past exposure. Advanced PCR-based techniques may also be used to diagnose brucellosis. Today a combination of antibiotics are recommended in treatment, whereas further therapeutic approaches are possible. New challenges posed by international travel, animal trade, animal movement, and occupational migration to/from endemic countries may increase incidence of human cases and the risk of re-emergence of brucellosis in previously brucellosis free regions such as Northern and Central Europe. Animals are considered to be lifelong carriers of Brucella spp. providing a large continuous source of human infection. A lower incidence of human brucellosis is likely to result from a decrease in incidence of animal brucellosis. Control and surveillance strategies may depend on the level of healthcare development and the prevalence of reservoir hosts in the affected region.

Antibiotic Resistance in Poultry

The worldwide increase in the use of antibiotics as an integral part of the poultry and livestock production industry to treat and prevent infectious bacterial diseases and as growth promoters at sub - therapeutic levels in feeds has led to the problem of the development of bacterial antibiotic resistance during the past years. Recent scientific evidence has shown that resistance to antibiotics is not only due to th e natural ability of a tiny fraction of the bacteria with unusual traits to survive antibiotic's attack, enabling resistant strains to multiply, but also stems from the transmissibility of acquired resistance to their progeny and across to other unrelated bacteria species through extrachromosomal DNA fragment called the plasmid which provide a slew of different resistances. The emergence and spread of resistant bacterial strains like Campylobacter sp, Escherichia coli and Enterococcus sp. from poultry products to consumers put humans at risk to new strains of bacteria that resist antibiotic treatment. Resistant bacteria thwart antibiotics by interfering with their mode of action via a range of effectors' mechanisms, including synthesis of inactivating enzymes, alteration in the configuration of cell wall or ribosome and modification of membrane carrier systems. These mechanisms are specific to the type of resistance developed. Because of the growing global concerns that resistance bacteria can pass from animals to humans, there is an increase in public and governmental interest in phasing out inappropriate antibiotic use in animal husbandry. Improvement in the hygienic practice of handling raw animal products and adequate heat treatment to eliminate the possibility of antibiotic resistant bacteria surviving may play a role in preventing the spread. More attention should be focused on increasing antibiotic surveillance capacity to cope with the spread of emerging resistances and on the alternative approach to sub-therapeutic antibiotics in poultry, especially the use of probiotic micro- organisms that can positively influence poultry health and produce safe edible products.