Ratio Of Reactants Research Articles

Modulating of Bi2MoO6-based photocatalyst through manipulation of reactant ratios for enhanced visible light photocatalytic activity

In this work, a novel photocatalyst, comprising of Bi2MoO6 and Bi2O2(OH)(NO3), was successfully synthesized by the one-pot hydrothermal method, thereby illuminating an innovative avenue for structure modulation of Bi2MoO6. The characterizations proved the facile attainability of controllable modifications in the microstructure and morphology of Bi2MoO6. The comprehensive appraisal of the synergistic adsorption-photocatalytic performances of the composites in the context of ciprofloxacin (CIP) was carried out. The findings presented compelling evidence that the amalgamation of Bi2MoO6/Bi2O2(OH)(NO3) exhibited an extraordinary adsorption capacity and photocatalytic activity when compared with the pristine Bi2MoO6 and Bi2O2(OH)(NO3). By virtue of its high surface area and pore volume, the optimized BMO/BON manifested a CIP adsorption capacity that surpassed that of Bi2MoO6 and Bi2O2(OH)(NO3) by approximately 2.4 and 11.2 times, respectively. Furthermore, through the concerted effects of adsorption and photocatalytic degradation, BMO/BON demonstrated an impressive CIP removal efficiency of 99.2 % following a mere 30 min of visible light exposure. The reaction rate constant was found to be approximately 0.124 min−1 for BMO/BON, surpassing that of Bi2MoO6 and Bi2O2(OH)(NO3). The augmentation in the photocatalytic activity of BMO/BON can be ascribed to its diminutive crystalline dimensions, large specific surface area, and narrowed bandgap. Thus, this investigation introduces a practical and ingenious strategy for the tuning of the Bi2MoO6 structure by manipulation of reactant ratios, showcasing significant implications in the realm of catalysis.

Feasibility Study of Developing an Eco-Friendly Bio Lubricant from Flaxseed Oil

The increasing global demand for sustainable and environmentally friendly lubricants has led to the exploration of bio-based alternatives. This study focuses on the production of a bio- lubricant using Flax Seed oil as the feedstock through an epoxidation process followed by acid testing. The first step involves the epoxidation of Flax Seed, where the unsaturated fatty acids present in the oil are converted into epoxides. This process is carried out using a catalyst and a peroxide source. The reaction conditions, such as temperature, time, and reactant ratios, are optimized to achieve the highest conversion and selectivity of epoxidized Flax Seed oil. The epoxidized Flax Seed is then subjected to acid testing to evaluate its suitability as a bio- lubricant. The acid value, which measures the amount of acidic compounds present, is determined. A low acid value indicates good stability and resistance to oxidation. Additionally, the viscosity, flash point and other relevant properties are assessed to ensure that the bio- lubricant meets industry standards. The results of the acid testing provide valuable insights into the quality and performance of the produced bio-lubricant. By analyzing the acid value and other properties, the effectiveness of the epoxidation process and the feasibility of using Flax Seed oil as a sustainable feedstock for bio-lubricant production can be determined. This research contributes to the development of eco-friendly lubricants by utilizing Flax Seed oil as a renewable resource. The epoxidation process and subsequent acid testing serve as crucial steps in the production and evaluation of bio-lubricants, highlighting their potential as a viable alternative to conventional petroleum-based lubricants

Catalytic Degradation Efficacy of Silver Nanoparticles Fabricated Using Actinidia deliciosa Peel Extract

The preparation of metallic nanoparticles using green synthetic approaches and its application toward the efficient degradation of environmentally hazardous dyes constitutes an attractive alternative to currently employed methods. In the current report, the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) was successfully achieved using Actinidia deliciosa (kiwifruit) peel aqueous extract as a bioreducing agent under optimized synthesis conditions. The experimental parameters were optimized in terms of reactant ratio, reaction temperature, and reaction time. The biogenic nanoparticles exhibited SPR absorption band at λmax 480 nm. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images revealed quasispherical monodisperse nanoparticles which were 36 nm in diameter. The hydrodynamic diameter of the nanoparticles was 106 nm as determined by dynamic light scattering, and the highly negative ζ-potential (−34 mV) supported its superior colloidal stability. Energy dispersive X-ray confirmed that silver is a major constituent of the nanoparticles. X-ray diffraction (XRD) diffractograms confirmed the crystallinity of the nanoparticles and its face-centered cubic (fcc) lattice structure. The functional groups in the plant’s phytochemicals facilitating the reduction of Ag+ ions and stabilization of the formed AgNPs were identified by fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. In specific, the bands in the FTIR spectra at 3,412, 1,618, 1,419, and 1,237 cm−1 suggested the presence of phenolic compounds. Phytochemical analysis by colorimetric assays revealed that the kiwifruit peel extract was rich in phenolic compounds. When evaluated in the catalytic degradation of organic dyes, the biosynthesized AgNPs induced instant and complete discoloration of the methylene blue dye when 1.6 mg of nanoparticles was used. At a lower dose of AgNPs (0.4 mg), 80% degradation of the dye occurred after 3 hr of treatment. The degradation reaction followed second-order kinetics with a rate constant of 0.01083 mM−1s−1. The current study highlights the immense potential of the prepared nanoparticles as efficient catalysts for the degradation of hazardous organic dyes such as methylene blue and presents an intriguing argument for investigating the catalytic efficiency of the biogenic AgNPs for the degradation of other structurally different dye pollutants.

Optimization of the Synthesis and Radiolabeling of ZIF-8 Nanoparticles.

Lately, there has been increasing interest in the benefits of metal-organic frameworks, and among them, zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIF - 8) stand out as one of the most commonly employed systems owing to their unique characteristics. Given that properties like particle size play a key role in biomedical applications of nanoparticles, optimizing the synthesis conditions becomes crucial. Additionally, it is essential to label these nanoparticles to track them effectively within the body. Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks nanoparticles were synthesized under various conditions, including high and room temperature, using two different solvents: Water and methanol. Modifications were made to the reaction temperature and the ratio of reactants to improve the outcomes. Particle size and size distribution were assessed in all conditions. Additionally, the radiolabeling of nanoparticles was examined using four different methods to identify the method with the highest efficiency and radiochemical purity. The optimum conditions for ZIF-8 synthesis were determined at 50°C using methanol as the solvent. A reactant weight ratio of 1: 2 (zinc nitrate to 2-methylimidazole) was utilized. The most effective radiolabeling approach involved using tin chloride as a reducing agent, with the reaction mixture maintained at a temperature of 70°C for 30 minutes. In this study, the optimum conditions were successfully identified for synthesizing and labeling ZIF-8 nanoparticles. These nanoparticles have the potential to serve as effective carriers for diagnostic and therapeutic agents.

A Critical View on the Quantification of Model Catalyst Activity

The conversion of reactants, reaction rate referred to catalyst mass, and turnover frequency (TOF) are values typically employed to compare the activity of different catalysts. However, experimental parameters have to be chosen carefully when systems of different complexity are compared. In order to characterize UHV-based model systems, we use a highly sensitive sniffer setup which allows us to investigate the catalytic activity by combining three different measurement modes: temperature-programmed desorption, continuous flow, and pulsed-reactivity experiments. In this article, we explore the caveats of quantifying catalytic activity in UHV on the well-studied and highly defined reference system of CO oxidation on Pt(111), which we later compare to the same reaction on Pt19 clusters deposited on Fe3O4(001). We demonstrate that we can apply fast heating ramps for TOF quantification, thus inducing as little sintering as possible in the metastable clusters. By changing the reactant ratio, we find transient reactivity effects that influence the TOF, which should be kept in mind when comparing catalysts. In addition, the TOF also depends on the surface coverage that itself is a function of temperature and pressure. At a constant reactant ratio, in the absence of transient effects, however, the TOF scales linearly with total pressure over the entire measured temperature range from 200 to 700 K since the reaction rate is dependent on both reactant partial pressures with temperature-dependent reaction order. When comparing the maximum TOF at this particular reactant ratio, we find a 1.6 times higher maximum TOF for Pt19/Fe3O4(001) than for Pt(111). In addition, pulsed-reactivity measurements help identify purely reaction-limited regimes and allow for a more detailed investigation of limiting reactants over the whole temperature range.

Sintesis Natrium Silikat Menggunakan Silika dari Pasir Pantai Bengkalis

Sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) is a chemical industrial material that is widely used as a metal cleaner, adhesive, and as a filler in the detergent, soap and toothpaste industries. Sodium silicate can be synthesized from silica dioxide (SiO2), which can be obtained through an extraction process from materials containing silica such as sand, glass bottle waste or rice husks. In this research, the synthesis of Na2SiO3 was carried out using silica extracted from Bengkalis beach sand using the acid leaching method, with a 3M HCl solution. The results of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of Bengkalis Beach sand showed that the silica content reached 89.1%. This research aims to determine the effect of the molar ratio of the NaOH reactant to the extracted SiO2 (2:1, 3:1 and 4:1) on the Na2SiO3 produced. The synthesis of Na2SiO3 was carried out using the hydrothermal method at atmospheric pressure, by reacting a 4M NaOH solution with 10 g of silica from Bengkalis sand, by heating at 110oC for an hour and stirring at 600 rpm. A molar ratio of 2:1 is the best ratio which produces 9.427g of Na2SiO3. From analysis using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, the spectrum patterns obtained are suitable for compounds containing silanol (≡Si-OH) and siloxane (≡Si-O-Si≡) groups. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of the synthesized compound is in accordance with standard sodium silicate. The Na2SiO3 obtained has a crystal diameter of 44.8 nm with an agglomerate-shaped morpology.

Process for Producing Lithium Iodide Cleanly through Electrodialysis Metathesis.

Lithium iodide is commonly used in the production of batteries and drugs. Currently, the neutralization method is the primary means of producing lithium iodide. This method involves using hydriodic acid as a raw material, adding lithium carbonate or lithium hydroxide, and obtaining lithium iodide through evaporation and concentration. However, hydriodic acid is chemically unstable. Its preparation can lead to explosive accidents and encountering high temperatures generates toxic iodine vapors. These limitations restrict its industrial production. The study evaluates the impact of membrane stack configuration, operating voltage, and initial concentrations and volume ratios of reactants on the production process. Electrodialysis metathesis, characterized by a simpler process flow, lower energy consumption, and environmental benefits, emerges as an effective technique for electrically driven membrane separation in lithium salt production and purification. Under the specific conditions of a C-C-A-C-A-C membrane stack configuration, operating voltage at 25 V, initial potassium iodide concentration at 0.4 mol/L, initial lithium sulfate concentration at 0.2 mol/L, and a 1:1 volume ratio of product liquid to raw material liquid, the method achieves a lithium iodide purity of 98.9% with a production cost of approximately 0.502 $/kg LiI.

Characteristics of Biodiesel Produced from Crude Palm Oil through Non-Alcohol Synthesis Route Using Dimethyl Carbonate and Immobilized Eco-Enzyme Catalyst

Biodiesel, an alternative to traditional diesel, is essential for the sustainability of long-term energy supplies and often synthesized through a non-alcoholic route called interesterification. The described synthesis method facilitates the modification of oil and fat by exchanging acyl radical groups between triglyceride and alcoholic acid (alcoholysis), fat (acidolysis), or ester (transesterification). Therefore, this research aimed to determine the effect of the reactant ratio between crude palm oil (CPO) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC), along with the use of an eco-enzyme catalyst, on biodiesel characteristics. The CPO:DMC ratio was 1:1.5, 1:2, 1:2.5, and 1:3, while the immobilized eco-enzyme catalyst was 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, and 6% of CPO mass. The results showed that interesterification with a 1:3 reactant ratio using a 4%wt catalyst was the best procedure, producing biodiesel yield of 73.65%, density of 0.860 g/mL, viscosity of 4.63 mm2/s (cSt), flash point of 113 °C, calorific value of 34.454 MJ/kg, and cetane number of 70.6%.

Reaction kinetics involved in esterification between the fatty acids in castor oil and furfuryl alcohol

Kinetics of esterification reaction between furfuryl alcohol (FA) and castor oil fatty acid (COFA) using immobilized Candida antartica lipase B in a solvent free system is investigated in present study. The well-known ping-pong bi bi mechanism with two-substrate inhibition has been confirmed to correctly describe the governing reaction pathway. Subsequently, the rate equation was used to evaluate pertinent kinetic parameters. Parametric optimization study was also carried out with respect to temperature, molar ratio of reactants and enzyme loading to maximize the equilibrium yield of COFA ester. Furthermore, functional variations of the kinetic parameters, which include Michaelis-Menten constants and inhibition coefficients, were evaluated with respect to three process parameters. Corresponding inferences are of high utility, specifically, in cases where the global optimum is beyond the scope of the existing production facility in any industrial platform.

A non-residue surface modification strategy for active-targeting fluorescent silica nanoparticles to cellular organelles.

Silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) with a chemically modified surface typically have a complicated chemical composition, which can significantly differ from their intended design. In this study, we systematically studied the effects of two surface modification methods on active-targeting of intracellular organelles of SiNPs: (1) the widely used step-by-step approach, which involves modifying SiNPs in two steps, i.e., the outer surface of SiNPs was firstly modified with amino groups and then these amino groups were linkedwith targeting groups, and (2) a newly developed one-step approach in which the ligand-silane complex is initially synthesized, followed by chemically immobilizing the complex on the surface of SiNPs. In the one-step approach, the molar ratio of reactants was precisely tuned so that there are no reactive groups left on the outer surface of SiNPs. Two essential organelles, mitochondria and the nucleus, were selected to compare the targeting performances of SiNPs synthesized via these two approaches. By characterizing physicochemical properties, including structural properties, the number of amino groups, surface charge, polydispersity, and cell colocalization, we demonstrated that SiNPs synthesized via the one-step approach with no residual linkage groups on their surface showed significantly improved mitochondria- and nucleus-targeting performances. This precise control of surface properties allows for optimized biological behavior and active-targeting efficiency of SiNPs. We anticipate that such simple and efficient synthetic strategies will enable the synthesis of effective SiNPs for active-targeting organelles in various biological applications.

Optimization of green silver nanoparticles as nanofungicides for management of rice bakanae disease

Rice bakanae, a devastating seed-borne disease caused by Fusarium species requires a more attractive and eco-friendly management strategy. The optimization of plant-mediated silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) as nanofungicides by targeting Fusarium species may be a rational approach. In this study, Azadirachta indica leaf aqueous extract-based AgNPs (AiLAE-AgNPs) were synthesized through the optimization of three reaction parameters: A. indica leaf amount, plant extract-to-AgNO3 ratio (reactant ratio), and incubation time. The optimized green AgNPs were characterized using ultraviolet–visible light (UV–Vis) spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) with energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. The optimal conditions for producing spherical, unique, and diminutive-sized AgNPs ranging from 4 to 27 nm, with an average size of 15 nm, were 2 g AiLAE at a 1:19 ratio (extract-to-AgNO3) and incubated for 4 h. Fusarium isolates collected from infected soils and identified as F. fujikuroi (40) and F. proliferatum (58 and 65) by PCR were used for seed infestation. The AgNPs exhibited concentration-dependent mycelial growth inhibition with EC50 values ranging from 2.95 to 5.50 μg/mL. The AgNPs displayed exposure time-dependent seed disinfectant potential (complete CFU reduction in F. fujikuroi (40) and F. proliferatum (58) was observed at a concentration of 17.24 μg/mL). The optimized green AgNPs were non-toxic to germinating seeds, and completely cured bakanae under net-house conditions, suggesting their great nano-fungicidal potency for food security and sustainable agriculture.

Experimental investigation on the self-healing properties of ester-exchanged vitrimeric CFRP laminate with microchannels

Epoxy vitrimer theoretically achieves an unlimited healing cycle drawing support from dynamic molecular chains. The healing conditions required for microvascular systems are variable and flexible. Current research has often focused on a single healing system, further exploration is needed for a dual healing system that combines the advantages of both. In this study, the effects of curing agent and catalyst content on the performances of vitrimer, as well as the healing parameters on the healing efficiency were studied. And then the vitrimeric CFRP (vCFRP) laminates with microchannels were prepared, and the three-point bending tests were implemented to characterize the healing efficiency of CFRP with a single and dual healing system. The results indicated that the cured vitrimer exhibited the best comprehensive performance when the molar ratio of reactants was 1:1:0.07. The healing temperature had the greatest impact on the healing efficiency of vitrimer, followed by the catalyst content and the healing pressure. The two healing systems could improve the mechanical properties of laminates, especially the healing efficiency of CFRP with dual healing system reached 134.5 %. The healing agent in the microchannels could heal micro-damage, and the healability of the vitrimer could still be utilized after the healing agent was exhausted.

Performance of Ni/Si‐MCM‐41 catalysts in CO2 methanation

AbstractThe production of methane from the methanation reaction between H2 and CO2, also known as the Sabatier reaction, is one way to diversify the global energy matrix, providing a use for CO2. This work evaluates the performance in this reaction of Ni catalysts supported on type MCM‐41 silica, synthesized y a wet impregnation method. Catalytic tests were performed for 2.5 h under atmospheric pressure. The reaction variables considered were the catalyst nickel mass content (5% and 10%), temperature (T = 400 and 550°C), reactant ratio (H2/CO2 = 4 and 2.5), and space velocity (VHSV = 5 and 10 L g−1 h−1). The catalysts were characterized by Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), X‐ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive x‐ray spectroscopy (EDS) analyses before the reactions, and by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), SEM, and EDS analyses after the reactions. The reaction variables were evaluated using an experimental design with 2 factors and 4 variables, in order to determine the effects of the reaction conditions on catalyst selectivity, reactant conversion, and reaction yields in terms of CH4 and CO. The best result was obtained using a reactant ratio of 2.5, space velocity of 5 L g−1 h−1, and reaction temperature of 550°C, resulting in 93.7% selectivity for methane, 69.4% CO2 conversion, 74% H2 conversion, and methane yield of 20.69%. Findings show Ni/Si‐MCM‐41 catalyst's applicability in methanation, advancing CH4 production technology, and addressing local demand while reducing CO2 emissions.

Simulation Study of Propylene Glycol Formation from Propylene Oxide and Water: Effect of Reactor Type, Reactant Ratio, Temperature, and Reactor Configuration

This study investigates the effect of reactor type, reactor configuration, reactor temperature, and reactant ratio on the formation of propylene glycol from propylene oxide and water using HYSY Simulation Software. The reactor types studied were Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors (CSTR) and Plug Flow Reactors (PFR). The effect of the reactant ratio was investigated by varying the mole ratio of propylene oxide to water. The effect of temperature was studied by varying the reaction temperature from 24 to 40°C. The HYSYS simulation results showed that the PFR resulted in the highest conversion compared to the CSTR. The CSTR configuration in series resulted in the highest conversion compared to the CSTR configuration in parallel. The conversion of propylene oxide to propylene glycol increased with increasing temperature. The reactant ratio of 1:1 (propylene oxide to water) resulted in the highest conversion compared to other reactant ratios. The implication of this study is to provide information on a more efficient and economical propylene glycol process.

How the Crosslinker Amount Influences the Final Properties of Hydroxyethyl Methacrylate Cryogels.

The investigation of the mechanical, thermal, and adsorption properties of hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) cryogels as a function of a reactant ratio is herein reported to better address materials for specific applications. To this aim, cryogels have been synthesized using different monomer/crosslinker (N,N'-methylene-bisacrylamide-MBAA) ratios. The study of SEM images made it possible to identify the trend in the material's macroporosity. As would be expected, the average measured pore width decreased as the amount of MBAA increased while the number of pores grew. Swelling capacity ranges from 8.7 gW/ggel (grams of water per gram of gel) to 9.3 gW/ggel. These values are strictly connected with the pore's size and distribution, revealing that the water uptake for the most crosslinked sample is inferior to other samples. The equilibrium-adsorption capacity (Qe) towards the methylene violet (MV) was also assessed, revealing no remarkable differences after 24 h of a batch test. As expected, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) also showed no significant changes in stability that ranged from a maximum weight loss temperature (T Max) of 420 °C to 425 °C, which increased as a function of crosslinker content. Conversely, compression strength measurements showed a notable difference of about 50% in modulus (Ec), moving from the higher to the lower HEMA/MBAA ratio. These new comparative results indicate how slight variations in the reactant's ratio can steadily improve the mechanical properties of the HEMA cryogel without affecting its adsorption efficiency. This can be helpful in the design of materials for water and energy purposes. Since swelling properties are needed in the case of biomedical applications, the HEMA/MBAA ratio should be tuned versus high values.

Improved high shear mixers enhance fast halogenation reactions of alcohols

In the view of green and sustainable synthesis, there is still a broad space for improvement with respect to the halogenations of the alcohol, which is facing up with the problems of high input and low yield. Herein, high shear mixers (HSM) were exploited first to enhance the bromination of tert-butyl alcohol by improving the mixing performance. Notably, the baffle plate (BP) was first proposed to facilitate the in situ separation of the product from the reaction system, promoting the reversible reaction equilibrium to shift toward the right direction. The influences of the molar ratio of reactants, temperature, feed rate, rotor speed, and height of BP were investigated on the reaction performance, which provides a facile and cost-efficient intensified technology to prepare 2-bromo-2-methylpropane. The maximum yield is achieved as 94.8% using HSM, obviously higher than that using CST (82.6%) and HST-Impeller (87.6%), and the reaction time can be shortened by 75%. Furthermore, such HSM and BP-HSM can successfully improve the yields of some fast alcohol halogenations with shorter reaction time. This ingenious exploration of BP in HSM provides valuable guidance on design new technology to intensify some fast organic chemical reactions with the products immiscible to the reactants.

Study on the equilibrium constants and initial formation temperature of NH4HSO4 and (NH4)2SO4 in coal‐fired flue gas

AbstractWith the development and utilization of high‐sulfur coal, generating ammonium bisulfate (ABS) and ammonium sulfate (AS) during the coal combustion process has garnered increasing attention. This study examined the formation of ABS and AS under varying temperatures and different initial reactant ratios of SO3 and NH3 by establishing a self‐constructed experimental setup. Based on the experimental data, the equilibrium constant change diagram for the ternary reactions leading to ABS and AS formation was derived. The initial temperatures for forming gaseous ABS and AS were estimated to be approximately 416.33°C and 393.56°C, respectively. Consequently, this study fills the data gap of the equilibrium constant of gaseous ABS formed at high temperatures and furnishes the selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system with quantifiable and notably expedient means of technical analysis.

Sustainability of flameless combustion mode with hydrogen addition to liquid kerosene fuel at high-intensity conditions

The application of hydrogen for fuel enrichment and blending has recently gained importance. The sustainability and performance enhancement through hydrogen addition in flameless combustion mode for liquid fuels needs further investigation to enhance our understanding. Therefore, the present study reports the effect of hydrogen addition on the flameless combustion of a kerosene-fired 30 kW swirl combustor with hydrogen addition. A divergence-shaped conical combustor with tangential air injection and asymmetric fuel injection scheme is adopted. The liquid fuel was injected using a solid-cone swirl nozzle with 34 μm Sauter Mean Diameter. The hydrogen addition was varied from 0 to 20% on a thermal input basis, and the thermal input of liquid fuel was maintained at a 30 kW level. Computational studies helped understand the flow physics behavior within the combustor volume. The hydrogen addition was observed to improve the reactant dilution ratio (Rdil). The maximum values of the Rdil increased from 4.47 to 5.44 with hydrogen addition. Hydrogen addition further helped extend the flameless combustion regime to φ = 0.3 without any air preheating. A uniformly distributed reaction with a reduced-temperature gradient is observed with extended combustion stability limits. A marginal increase in NOx emissions was observed with hydrogen addition, albeit within permissible limits, accompanied by ∼8–20 dB reduction in acoustic emissions.

The Importance of Nonstoichiometric Ratio of Reactants in Organic Synthesis

The Importance of Nonstoichiometric Ratio of Reactants in Organic Synthesis

Kinetic, Thermodynamic, and Parametric Studies on Batch Synthesis of 1,1‐Diethoxybutane Catalyzed by Amberlyst‐15 Wet

Abstract1,1‐Diethoxybutane is a high‐potential biofuel additive that enhances various fuel properties, which include cetane number, lubricity, biodegradability, and flash point. This work presents a kinetic and thermodynamic study on the acetalization reaction between butanal and ethanol in the presence of Amberlyst‐15 wet in a batch reactor. The experiments were conducted in the temperature range 313–333 K at atmospheric pressure with three different initial molar ratios of reactants and catalyst loadings. An optimal parameter setting to achieve maximum equilibrium conversion of butanal was derived from a parametric study with these three factors. The equilibrium constant for the reaction was determined. Standard thermodynamic properties of the reaction, such as enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs free energy, were experimentally evaluated. The activity‐based two‐parameter Langmuir‐Hinshelwood‐Hougen‐Watson rate expression was used for reaction kinetics. The activity coefficients were calculated by the UNIFAC method. The kinetic parameters and the activation energy were evaluated from the experimental data. The experimental data and data predicted by the model were found to be in good agreement.