Emplacement Rates Research Articles

Delivery of deep-sourced, volatile-rich plume material to the global ridge system

The global mid-ocean ridge (MOR) system represents a major site for outgassing of volatiles from Earth's mantle. The amount of H2O released via eruption of mid-ocean ridge basalts varies along the global ridge system and greatest at sites of interaction with mantle plumes. These deep-sourced thermal anomalies affect approximately one-third of all MORs – as reflected in enrichment of incompatible trace elements, isotope signatures and elevated ridge topography (excess melting) – but the physical mechanisms involved are controversial. The “standard model” involves solid-state flow interaction, wherein an actively upwelling plume influences the divergent upwelling generated by a mid-ocean ridge so that melting occurs at higher pressures and in greater amounts than at a normal spreading ridge. This model does not explain, however, certain enigmatic features including linear volcanic ridges radiating from the active plume to the nearby MOR. Examples of these are the Wolf–Darwin lineament (Galápagos), Rodrigues Ridge (La Réunion), Discovery Ridge (Discovery), and numerous smaller ridge-like structures associated with the Azores and Easter–Salas y Gómez hot spots. An important observation from our study is that fractionation-corrected MORB with exceptionally-high H2O contents (up to 1.3 wt.%) are found in close proximity to intersections of long-lived plume-related volcanic lineaments with spreading centres.New algorithms in the rare-earth element inversion melting (INVMEL) program allow us to simulate plume–ridge interactions by mixing the compositions of volatile-bearing melts generated during both active upwelling and passively-driven corner-flow. Our findings from these empirical models suggest that at sites of plume–ridge interaction, moderately-enriched MORBs (with 0.2–0.4 wt.% H2O) result from mixing of melts formed by: (i) active upwelling of plume material to minimum depths of ∼35 km; and (ii) those generated by passive melting at shallower depths beneath the ridge. The most volatile-rich MORB (0.4–1.3 wt.% H2O) may form by the further addition of up to 25% of “deep” small-fraction plume stem melts that contain >3 wt.% H2O. We propose that these volatile-rich melts are transported directly to nearby MOR segments via pressure-induced, highly-channelised flow embedded within a broader “puddle” of mostly solid-state plume material, spreading beneath the plate as a gravity flow. This accounts for the short wavelength variability (over 10s of km) in geochemistry and bathymetry that is superimposed on the much larger (many 100s of km) “waist width” of plume-influenced ridge.Melt channels may constitute a primary delivery mechanism for volatiles from plume stems to nearby MORs and, in some instances, be expressed at the surface as volcanic lineaments and ridges. The delivery of small-fraction hydrous melts from plume stems to ridges via a two-phase (melt-matrix) regime implies that a parallel, bimodal transport system is involved at sites of plume–ridge interaction. We estimate that the rate of emplacement of deep-sourced volatile-rich melts in channels beneath the volcanic lineaments is high and involves 10s of thousands of km3/Ma. Since mantle plumes account for more than half of the melt production at MORs our findings have important implications for our understanding of deep Earth volatile cycling.

Understanding Fast and Slow Unrest at Volcanoes and Implications for Eruption Forecasting

This paper examines the behaviour of fast volcanoes that erupt quickly with paroxysmal explosive eruptions, and slow volcanoes that erupt over extended periods without such paroxysmal activity. I review activity at four fast and four slow volcanoes, highlighting the main events and commonalities in behaviour among the different systems. In terms of forecasting, fast volcanoes typically have short 1-3 month precursory periods prior to the climactic eruption, while slow volcanoes commonly have an extended period of considerable uncertainty regarding the presence or absence of new magma, as well as unanticipated accelerations in activity. Fast volcanoes are associated with magmas having elevated volatile contents (up to ~7 wt. % H2O), rapid magma ascent rates, and rapid declines in activity after the climactic eruption. Fast volcanoes also exhibit well defined magma plumbing systems with mobile volatile-rich magma, with the plumbing system sealed between the top of the shallow magma reservoir and the surface prior to the climactic eruption. Slow volcanoes have complex plumbing systems comprising cracks, fractures, dykes, and sills and magmas that are crystal-rich, partly degassed, and rheologically sluggish. Slow volcanoes experience a progressive opening of their systems as magma intrudes and fractures country rock, allowing degassing to occur. The degree to which a system is opened is determined by the rate at which new magma is emplaced at shallow levels. Slower rates of emplacement enhance the opening process due to a cumulatively high number of fractures and increased fracture density which develop during the extended period of unrest. Many systems both fast and slow receive inputs of mafic magma which can drive activity seen at the surface. A series of recently developed tools is examined and discussed in order to provide an improved means of forecasting activity at both types of volcanoes. These include assessment of early phreatic activity and associated gases, Vp /Vs ratios of magma by seismic tomography, and estimates of magma volume from precursory seismicity. What is required now are protocols which integrate these approaches in a manner which is useful for accurate forecasting.

Magma ascent and lava flow emplacement rates during the 2011 Axial Seamount eruption based on CO2 degassing

Quantitative metrics for eruption rates at mid-ocean ridges (MORs) would improve our understanding of the structure and formation of the uppermost oceanic crust and would provide a means to link volcanic processes with the conditions of the underlying magmatic system. However, these metrics remain elusive because no MOR eruptions have been directly observed. The possibility of disequilibrium degassing in mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB), due to high eruptive depressurization rates, makes the analysis of volatile concentrations in MORB glass a promising method for evaluating eruption rates. In this study, we estimate magma ascent and lava flow emplacement rates during the 2011 eruption of Axial Seamount based on numerical modeling of diffusion-controlled bubble growth and new measurements of dissolved volatiles, vesicularity, and vesicle size distributions in erupted basalts. This dataset provides a unique view of the variability in magma ascent (∼0.02–1.2 m/s) and lava flow rates (∼0.1–0.7 m/s) during a submarine MOR eruption based on 50 samples collected from a >10 km long fissure system and three individual lava flow lobes. Samples from the 2011 eruption display an unprecedented range in dissolved CO2 concentrations, nearly spanning the full range observed on the global MOR system. The variable vesicularity and dissolved CO2 concentrations in these samples can be explained by differences in the extent of degassing, dictated by flow lengths and velocities during both vertical ascent and horizontal flow along the seafloor. Our results document, for the first time, the variability in magma ascent rates during a submarine eruption (∼0.02–1.2 m/s), which spans the global range previously proposed based on CO2 degassing. The slowest ascent rates are associated with hummocky flows while faster ascent rates produce channelized sheet flows. This study corroborates degassing-based models for eruption rates using comparisons with independent methods and documents the relationship between eruption dynamics, magma ascent rates, and the morphology of eruptive products. Globally, this approach allows interrogation of the processes that govern mid-ocean ridge eruptions and influence the formation of the oceanic crust.

The emplacement of the active lava flow at Sinabung Volcano, Sumatra, Indonesia, documented by structure-from-motion photogrammetry

An effusive eruption at Sinabung Volcano in Indonesia began in December 2013. We use structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetric techniques to create digital elevation models (DEMs) of the active lava flow. We build DEMs from photographs taken during two separate time periods and from two separate low-cost handheld cameras and compare them with a pre-eruption DEM to assess the quality and accuracy of photogrammetric DEMs created using different cameras, calculate flow volume and long-term average effusion rate, and document changes in flow morphology. On September 22nd, 2014, the lava flow was 2.9km long and had a volume of 1.03±0.14×108m3, leading to an estimated time-averaged discharge rate of 4.8±0.6m3s−1. Differencing the photogrammetric DEMs shows that during the two-week field campaign, topographic changes of the flow occurred in zones along the flow front and on the upper flank, a finding supported by relatively high temperatures in corresponding thermal images. The deformation can be explained by active advance at the flow front and development of instabilities and collapse on the upper flanks. Large pyroclastic density currents associated with gravitational collapse of upper-flank instabilities in October 2014 and June 2015 were caused by lava growing over ridges that had initially confined the flow to a pre-existing channel. This work demonstrates the ability of SfM photogrammetry to measure or identify the lava flow volume, time-averaged discharge rate, flow emplacement rate and style, as well as the development of gravitational instabilities. Our results show the potential of SfM photogrammetry as a cost- and time-effective method of repeatedly measuring active volcanic features and monitoring hazards at Sinabung and during similar eruptions.

Magma Emplacement Rates and Porphyry Copper Deposits: Thermal Modeling of the Yerington Batholith, Nevada

Abstract Many porphyry copper deposits are associated with granitoid plutons. Porphyry copper deposit genesis is commonly attributed to degassing of pluton-forming intermediate to silicic magma chambers during slow cooling and crystallization. We use numerical simulations of thermal evolution during pluton growth to investigate the links between pluton construction, magma accumulation and solidification, volatile release, and porphyry copper deposit formation. The Jurassic Yerington batholith, Nevada, serves as a case study because of its exceptional exposure, revealing the geometry of three main intrusions. The last intrusion, the Luhr Hill granite, is associated with economic porphyry copper deposits localized over cupolas where dikes and fluid flow were focused. Our simulations for the conceptual model linking porphyry copper deposits with the presence of large, highly molten magma chambers show that the Luhr Hill granite must have been emplaced at a vertical thickening rate of several cm/yr or more. This magma emplacement rate is much higher than the time-averaged formation rates of other batholiths reported in the literature. Such low rates, although common, do not lead to magma accumulation and might be one of the reasons why many granitoid plutons are barren. Based on our results, we formulate the new testable hypothesis of a link between porphyry copper deposit formation and the emplacement time scale of the associated magma intrusion.

Compositional zonation of the shallow La Gloria pluton (Central Chile) by late-stage extraction/redistribution of residual melts by channelization: Numerical modeling

The origin of highly evolved magmas (e.g. rhyolites) has been a long-standing controversy in earth sciences. They are commonly thought to be generated in the upper crust by melt extraction from mush zones, but due to the rapid cooling of magma reservoirs in such shallow and typically cold environments, high magma emplacement rates of intermediate magmas are thought to be necessary to maintain large silicic mushes above the solidus long enough for the high-SiO2 melts extraction to occur. Late-stage redistribution of interstitial melts (i.e. heat and mass) by channels/dikes within those mushes has been invoked as a mechanism to preserve silicic mushes above their solidi for longer periods (i.e. delaying their final crystallization), but the nature of this process and its implications on plutons zonation are still poorly understood.Here, using time-dependent numerical modeling, we study the feasibility of late-stage interstitial melt extraction/redistribution by channels/dikes from a crystalline mush. Our model accounts for magma fluid dynamics, extraction of residual melts and thermal evolution of the crystallizing magma system and its hosting rocks, considering the thermal effect of the redistributing material. The model was applied to explain the anatomy of the well-documented La Gloria pluton (LGP, Central Chile), which exhibits increasing contents of SiO2 and abundant leucocratic dikes toward the margins, interpreted as trapped residual melts generated elsewhere in the magma chamber.Our results suggest that favorable conditions for extracting late-stage residual melts are reached at temperatures of ~750°C (60vol% crystallinity), at least for compositions similar to LGP dikes. Simulations correspond to 30kyr of reservoir cooling, when the concentric compositional zonation of LGP is reproduced after a short period of extraction (<15kyr) and outward redistribution of silicic melt, with an extracted mass fraction of up to 0.17. An inward growing crystal-dominated domain is the main source of interstitial melts. A total extracted melt volume of ~7.5km3 and a mean extraction rate of ~0.5km3/kyr were calculated for LGP conditions. For small magma reservoirs, the extracted rhyolitic melt could reach the upper levels of the magma chamber and the overlying host rock, but it seems unlikely that it can reach the surface to feed large rhyolitic eruptions, at least once recharges have stopped.

Statistical analysis of the sustained lava dome emplacement and destruction processes at Popocatépetl volcano, Central México

Popocatepetl volcano reawakened in 1994 after nearly 70 years of quiescence. Between 1996 and 2015, a succession of at least 38 lava domes have been irregularly emplaced and destroyed, with each dome reaching particular volumes at specific emplacement rates. The complexity of this sequence is analyzed using statistical methods in an attempt to gain insight into the physics and dynamics of the lava dome emplacement and destruction process and to objectively assess the hazards related to that volcano. The time series of emplacements, dome residences, lava effusion lulls, and emplaced dome volumes and thicknesses are modeled using the simple exponential and Weibull distributions, the compound non-homogeneous generalized Pareto–Poisson process (NHPPP), and the mixture of exponentials distribution (MOED). The statistical analysis reveals that the sequence of dome emplacements is a non-stationary, self-regulating process most likely controlled by the balance between buoyancy-driven magma ascent and volatile exsolution crystallization. This balance has supported the sustained effusive activity for decades and may persist for an undetermined amount of time. However, the eruptive history of Popocatepetl includes major Plinian phases that may have resulted from a breach in that balance. Certain criteria to recognize such breaching conditions are inferred from this statistical analysis.

Introduction: EarthScope IDOR project (deformation and magmatic modification of a steep continental margin, western Idaho–eastern Oregon) themed issue

The EarthScope IDOR (Idaho-Oregon) project was designed to investigate the formation of the steep accretionary boundary associated with the Salmon River suture zone and western Idaho shear zone (WISZ), in western Idaho and eastern Oregon (western USA). The research was designed to test three hypotheses concerning the present geometry of the boundary: (1) a crustal detachment; (2) a lithospheric detachment; and (3) a curved original geometry for the WISZ. The data presented in this volume indicate that none of these original three models is correct. Rather, the WISZ continues vertically downward through the entire crust, its steep orientation consistent with a significant component of strike-slip and/or transpressional tectonism. Moreover, the western Idaho shear zone is extremely well preserved despite abundant subsequent magmatism (Idaho batholith, Challis event, Columbia River Basalt Group) and tectonism (Cretaceous contraction, Eocene extension, Miocene–present extension). The ten research papers in this volume report on various aspects of this history. Four papers address the kinematics and tectonic history of rocks spatially associated with the WISZ, including its along-strike northward continuation. Two papers address the tectonic history of the accreted terranes, including geochemical arguments for different lithospheres sampled during magmatic episodes. Three papers document deformation, exhumation, and emplacement rates in the Idaho batholith. The final paper constrains the modern crustal architecture along a transect from the accreted terranes in the west to cratonic North America in the east. Together, these studies constrain the tectonic history of a subvertical tectonic boundary in the North American Cordillera.

Dome growth, collapse, and valley fill at Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat, from 1995 to 2013: Contributions from satellite radar measurements of topographic change

Frequent high-resolution measurements of topography at active volcanoes can provide important information for assessing the distribution and rate of emplacement of volcanic deposits and their influence on hazard. At dome-building volcanoes, monitoring techniques such as LiDAR and photogrammetry often provide a limited view of the area affected by the eruption. Here, we show the ability of satellite radar observations to image the lava dome and pyroclastic density current deposits that resulted from 15 years of eruptive activity at Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat, from 1995 to 2010. We present the first geodetic measurements of the complete subaerial deposition field on Montserrat, including the lava dome. Synthetic aperture radar observations from the Advanced Land Observation Satellite (ALOS) and TanDEM-X mission are used to map the distribution and magnitude of elevation changes. We estimate a net dense-rock equivalent volume increase of 108 ± 15M m3 of the lava dome and 300 ± 220M m3 of talus and subaerial pyroclastic density current deposits. We also show variations in deposit distribution during different phases of the eruption, with greatest on-land deposition to the south and west, from 1995 to 2005, and the thickest deposits to the west and north after 2005. We conclude by assessing the potential of using radar-derived topographic measurements as a tool for monitoring and hazard assessment during eruptions at dome-building volcanoes.

Crustal Magmatic Systems from the Perspective of Heat Transfer

Crustal magmatic systems are giant heat engines, fed from below by pulses of hot magma, and depleted by loss of heat to their surroundings via conduction or convection. Heat loss drives crystallization and degassing, which change the physical state of the system from relatively low-viscosity, eruptible melt, to high-viscosity, immobile, partially molten rock. We explore the temporal evolution of incrementally grown magmatic systems using numerical models of heat transfer. We show that their physical characteristics depend on magma emplacement rates and that the majority of a magma system9s lifetime is spent in a highly crystalline state. We speculate about what we can, and cannot, learn about magmatic systems from their volcanic output.

Tectonic controls on post-subduction granite genesis and emplacement: The late Caledonian suite of Britain and Ireland

Rates of magma emplacement commonly vary as a function of tectonic setting. The late Caledonian granites of Britain and Ireland are associated with closure of the Iapetus Ocean and were emplaced into a varying regime of transpression and transtension throughout the Silurian and into the early Devonian. Here we evaluate a new approach for examining how magma volumes vary as a function of tectonic setting. Available radiometric ages from the late Caledonian granites are used to calculate probability density functions (age spectra), with each pluton weighted by outcrop area as a proxy for its volume. These spectra confirm an absence of magmatic activity during Iapetus subduction between c. 455Ma and 425Ma and a dominance of post-subduction magmas between c. 425Ma and 380Ma. We review possible reasons why, despite the widespread outcrop of the late Caledonian granites, magmatism appears absent during Iapetus subduction. These include shallow angle subduction or extensive erosion and tectonic removal of the arc.In contrast to previous work, we find no strong difference in the age or major element chemistry of post-subduction granites across all terranes. We propose a common causal mechanism in which the down-going Iapetus oceanic slab peeled back and detached beneath the suture following final Iapetus closure. The lithospheric mantle was delaminated beneath the suture and for about 100km back beneath the Avalonian margin. While magma generation is largely a function of gravitationally driven lithosphere delamination, strike slip dominated kinematics in the overlying continental crust is what modulated granitic magma emplacement. Early Devonian (419–404Ma) transtension permitted large volumes of granite emplacement, whereas the subsequent Acadian (late Early Devonian, 404–394Ma) transpression reduced and eventually suppressed magma emplacement.

Evaluating the construction and evolution of upper crustal magma reservoirs with coupled U/Pb zircon geochronology and thermal modeling: A case study from the Mt. Capanne pluton (Elba, Italy)

Evaluating mechanisms and rates for magma transport and emplacement in the upper crust is important in order to predict the thermal and rheological state of the crust, and understand the relationship between plutonism and volcanism. U–Pb geochronology on zircon is commonly used to constrain magma emplacement and storage time in the crust, but interpreting complex zircon age populations in terms of in-situ crystallization versus crystallization at a deeper level is not trivial. This study focuses on the Mt. Capanne pluton in Elba (Italy), a well-documented example of arc-related laccolith emplaced in the upper continental crust. Previous studies proposed that the Mt. Capanne intrusion was accreted in less than 10 000 yr by distinct and mappable magma pulses. Here, we couple high-precision ID-TIMS U–Pb zircon geochronology with numerical thermal simulations to evaluate emplacement rates, test different emplacement models, inform zircon age interpretations and evaluate the potential for melt storage during construction of the Mt. Capanne pluton. Our results require that the Mt. Capanne intrusion was built in at least 250 000 yr by multiple magma injections. A variety of emplacement scenarios show that melt was preserved for <60 000 yr after each pulse and that the maximum eruptible volumes were approximately equal to the volume of each pulse. Our results also require that the majority of zircon crystallization occurred in zircon saturated reservoirs at deeper crustal levels prior to final magma emplacement and cooling, which has implications for using zircon U–Pb geochronology to infer upper crustal magma residence times.

Inverting multispectral thermal time-series images of volcanic eruptions for lava emplacement models

Abstract We present a novel method for interpreting time series of multispectral observations of volcanic eruptions. We show how existing models relating to radiance and area emplacement can be generalized into an integration-convolution of a Net Area Emplacement (NAE) function and a cooling function, assuming all surfaces follow the same cooling curve. The NAE describes the variation in the rate of emplacement of hot material with time and temperature, while the cooling function describes the cooling of a hot surface with time. Discretizing the integration-convolution equation yields an underdetermined matrix equation that we solve using second-order Tikhonov regularization to stabilize the solution. We test the inversion by modelling plausible NAE surfaces, calculating the radiances, adding noise and inverting for the original surface. Three or more spectral bands are required to capture the overall shape of the NAE, and recovering specific quantities is difficult. Single wavebands that yield flat kernels recover the total area emplacement curve (rate of increase of hot area – the integral of the NAE with respect to temperature) surprisingly well due to their property of conserving NAE, suggesting novel methods for calculating area emplacement rates (and effusion rates) from time series of satellite images and radiometer measurements.

Architecture of the Neoarchaean Jaguar VHMS deposit, Western Australia: Implications for prospectivity and the presence of depositional breaks

The duration and nature of breaks in Archaean volcanosedimentary packages, recently re-evaluated in the Abitibi Greenstone Belt, has been assessed at Jaguar, an Archaean Cu–Zn-rich volcanic-hosted massive sulphide (VHMS) deposit in the Teutonic Bore volcanic complex (TBVC), the Eastern Goldfields of the Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia. The deposit is hosted by coherent volcanic facies and associated volcaniclastic facies, with minor non-volcanic facies.The hypothesis that VHMS ore lies on the intersection of volcanic centres and depositional breaks is found to be valid for the Jaguar deposit, with the site being an active volcanic complex at footwall time, with further dome development close to the final ore location at Mineralised Package time, and then reoccurring volcanic complexes (andesitic and basaltic) at several points in the hangingwall succession broadly tied into the ore position.At Jaguar the entire stratigraphic sequence faces west, with no major structural complications, making it ideal for stratigraphic analysis. The footwall evidences prolific volcanism with no intervening sedimentation. The Mineralised Package (MP) consists of intercalated dacite, breccia, conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone. The footwall volcanic rocks and the MP Dacite appear to be differentiation products from the same magma chamber. A major volcanic geochemical boundary is identified between the footwall/MP (tholeiitic to transitional affinities), and the immediate hangingwall succession (calc-alkaline). The hangingwall package includes four distinct volcanic units intercalated with mass flow deposits and graphitic argillites.VHMS mineralisation occurred across a distinct change in the geochemistry of erupted volcanic facies at a time of increased volcaniclastic sedimentation and extension. This break is comparable to Member level hiatuses seen in the Abitibi GB, i.e. the most brief of breaks, because there is no silicification of sedimentary unit-tops by silicic seawater exposure, and there is minimal development of black shales. A third time-sensitive criteria was the development of peperite on the base of Hanging Wall (HW) andesite lavas. The MP closely resembles breaks within interpreted deeper water domains of the Abitibi GB, for instance, the Deloro-Tisdale assemblage interface south of Timmins.The recognition of the change in the rate of emplacement of volcanic units and particularly the change in chemistry of volcanic rocks, are critical exploration lithologic guides to use in the absence of chemical sediment deposits (exhalites). Although crustal extension and basin subsidence were factors in the shaping of the succession, their effects were too subtle to use as an exploration tool. A corollary of the recognition of a Member-level VHMS-bearing interval in the Teutonic Bore volcanic complex is that, like the Kidd-Munro assemblage stratigraphy (Abitibi GB), where several ore-bearing depositional breaks are known below the great Kidd Creek deposit, there is scope for the discovery of further (potentially larger) deposits on higher Formation or Group-level breaks in the TBVC.

Sub-decadal turbidite frequency during the early Holocene: Eel Fan, offshore northern California

Remotely operated and autonomous underwater vehicle technologies were used to image and sample exceptional deep sea outcrops where an ~100-m-thick section of turbidite beds is exposed on the headwalls of two giant submarine scours on Eel submarine fan, offshore northern California (USA). These outcrops provide a rare opportunity to connect young deep-sea turbidites with their feeder system. 14 C measurements reveal that from 12.8 ka to 7.9 ka, one turbidite was being emplaced on average every 7 yr. This emplacement rate is two to three orders of magnitude higher than observed for turbidites elsewhere along the Pacific margin of North America. The turbidites contain abundant wood and shallow-dwelling foraminifera, demonstrating an efficient connection between the Eel River source and the Eel Fan sink. Tur bidite recurrence intervals diminish fivefold to ~36 yr from 7.9 ka onward, reflecting sea-level rise and re-routing of Eel River sediments.

Carbon isotope and abundance systematics of Icelandic geothermal gases, fluids and subglacial basalts with implications for mantle plume-related CO2 fluxes

We report new carbon dioxide (CO2) abundance and isotope data for 71 geothermal gases and fluids from both high-temperature (HT>150°C at 1km depth) and low-temperature (LT<150°C at 1km depth) geothermal systems located within neovolcanic zones and older segments of the Icelandic crust, respectively. These data are supplemented by CO2 data obtained by stepped heating of 47 subglacial basaltic glasses collected from the neovolcanic zones. The sample suite has been characterized previously for He–Ne (geothermal) and He–Ne–Ar (basalt) systematics (Füri et al., 2010), allowing elemental ratios to be calculated for individual samples. Geothermal fluids are characterized by a wide range in carbon isotope ratios (δ13C), from −18.8‰ to +4.6‰ (vs. VPDB), and CO2/3He values that span eight orders of magnitude, from 1×104 to 2×1012. Extreme geothermal values suggest that original source compositions have been extensively modified by hydrothermal processes such as degassing and/or calcite precipitation. Basaltic glasses are also characterized by a wide range in δ13C values, from −27.2‰ to −3.6‰, whereas CO2/3He values span a narrower range, from 1×108 to 1×1012. The combination of both low δ13C values and low CO2 contents in basalts indicates that magmas are extensively and variably degassed. Using an equilibrium degassing model, we estimate that pre-eruptive basaltic melts beneath Iceland contain ∼531±64ppm CO2 with δ13C values of −2.5±1.1‰, in good agreement with estimates from olivine-hosted melt inclusions (Metrich et al., 1991) and depleted MORB mantle (DMM) CO2 source estimates (Marty, 2012). In addition, pre-eruptive CO2 compositions are estimated for individual segments of the Icelandic axial rift zones, and show a marked decrease from north to south (Northern Rift Zone=550±66ppm; Eastern Rift Zone=371±45ppm; Western Rift Zone=206±24ppm). Notably, these results are model dependent, and selection of a lower δ13C fractionation factor will result in lower source estimates and larger uncertainties associated with the initial δ13C estimate. Degassing can adequately explain low CO2 contents in basalts; however, degassing alone is unlikely to generate the entire spectrum of observed δ13C variations, and we suggest that melt–crust interaction, involving a low δ13C component, may also contribute to observed signatures. Using representative samples, the CO2 flux from Iceland is estimated using three independent methods: (1) combining measured CO2/3He values (in gases and basalts) with 3He flux estimates (Hilton et al., 1990), (2) merging basaltic emplacement rates of Iceland with pre-eruptive magma source estimates of ∼531±64ppm CO2, and (3) combining fluid CO2 contents with estimated regional fluid discharge rates. These methods yield CO2 flux estimates from of 0.2–23×1010 mol a−1, which represent ∼0.1–10% of the estimated global ridge flux (2.2×1012 mol a−1; Marty and Tolstikhin, 1998).

Middle to Late Amazonian tropical mountain glaciers on Mars: The ages of the Tharsis Montes fan-shaped deposits

Fan-shaped deposits (FSDs) extending to the northwest of the Tharsis Montes on Mars are the remnants of Amazonian-aged, cold-based, tropical mountain glaciers. We use high-resolution images to perform new impact crater size-frequency distribution (CSFD) analyses on these deposits in an effort to constrain the timing and duration of ice accumulation at tropical latitudes on Mars. This analysis revises the current understanding of the chronology regarding the formation of the glaciers and of the ridged facies in the Arsia Mons deposit, a deposit interpreted to be formed from recessional cold-based drop moraines. We develop a conceptual model that illustrates the effect of moving glacial ice on superposed impact craters of various sizes, including the buffering of underlying geologic units from impacts caused by the presence of the ice for extended periods of time, and the interpretation of crater retention ages of the subsequent glacial deposits following the periods of active glaciation. The new CSFD analyses establish best-fit crater retention ages for each entire Tharsis Montes FSD; these are ~220Ma for the Ascraeus FSD at 8.35°S, ~125Ma for the Pavonis FSD at 1.48°N, and ~210Ma for the Arsia FSD at 11.92°N. Because the age for each deposit represents a combination of the stratigraphically older ridged facies and the younger knobby and smooth facies, the crater retention ages are most likely to represent dates subsequent to the onset of glaciation and prior to its final cessation. Estimates of the time necessary to build the deposits using net accumulation rates from atmospheric general circulation models and emplacement rates from glacial flow models suggest durations of ~45–150Ma, depending on the specific obliquity history. These surface crater retention ages and related age estimates require that massive volumes of ice (on the order of 105km3) were emplaced at tropical latitudes on Mars during the Middle to Late Amazonian. Additionally, we determined CSFD ages of three adjacent drop moraine units at Arsia Mons (725Ma, 475Ma and 345Ma) and used these to calculate the average amount of time needed to form one of the approximately 185 drop moraines forming these deposits; we found that a typical drop moraine formation time in the Arsia FSD ridged facies to be on the order of ~106 years. These formation ages are considerably longer than that required for typical moraine systems alongside dynamic, wet-based glaciers on Earth, but are in approximate accord with recent geomorphological and geochemical data that document long-term, ice-margin stability for several cold-based glaciers in interior Antarctica. The difference in the ages of the ridged facies and non-ridged portion of the Arsia FSD suggests that the tropical mountain glaciers may have been emplaced over a period spanning many hundreds of millions of years. CSFD measurements for lava flows predating and postdating the Arsia Mons FSD suggest a maximum possible age of <750Ma and a minimum age for the late stage, post FSD lava flows of ~105Ma. Taken together, this evidence supports a scenario in which ice has been present and stable in substantial quantities (~105–106km3) at tropical latitudes during extended periods of the Middle to Late Amazonian history of Mars. This implies that during this time, Mars sustained periods of spin-axis obliquity in the vicinity of 45°, during which time polar ice deposits were substantially reduced in volume or perhaps even absent.

On the longevity of large upper crustal silicic magma reservoirs

Research Article| July 01, 2013 On the longevity of large upper crustal silicic magma reservoirs Sarah E. Gelman; Sarah E. Gelman 1Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Francisco J. Gutiérrez; Francisco J. Gutiérrez 1Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA2Advanced Mining and Technology Center, and Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Olivier Bachmann Olivier Bachmann 1Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA3Department of Earth Sciences, Institute of Geochemistry and Petrology, ETH Zurich, Switzerland Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Geology (2013) 41 (7): 759–762. https://doi.org/10.1130/G34241.1 Article history received: 15 Nov 2012 rev-recd: 08 Feb 2013 accepted: 12 Feb 2013 first online: 09 Mar 2017 Cite View This Citation Add to Citation Manager Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Search Site Citation Sarah E. Gelman, Francisco J. Gutiérrez, Olivier Bachmann; On the longevity of large upper crustal silicic magma reservoirs. Geology 2013;; 41 (7): 759–762. doi: https://doi.org/10.1130/G34241.1 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Refmanager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentBy SocietyGeology Search Advanced Search Abstract Understanding the processes involved in the formation and maturation of upper crustal magma reservoirs, ultimately sourcing the largest volcanic eruptions on Earth, is one of the most fundamental aspects of volcanology. While such reservoirs are known to assemble incrementally over extended periods of time, debate persists regarding the time scales of melt preservation in the cold upper crust. If rapid cooling individually freezes incoming replenishing intrusions, accumulations of eruptible magma are impossible, precluding the construction of voluminous volcanic reservoirs for all but the highest magma emplacement rates. Recent numerical thermal models have been used to assess the viability of upper crustal silicic magma survival, and have suggested that supervolcanic reservoirs must form on geologically short time scales with anomalously high injection rates, and subsist only ephemerally, making their long-term evolution less predictable. Motivated by geological observations suggesting the contrary, we have improved upon these models by incorporating two fundamental features of natural systems not previously considered: (1) a nonlinear crystallization-temperature relationship adapted for upper crustal silicic magmas and (2) a temperature-dependent thermal conductivity. We demonstrate that the incorporation of both of these properties can allow an upper crustal reservoir to remain above its solidus for hundreds of thousands of years when fed by magma fluxes typical of large magmatic provinces. While the crystallization-temperature path plays the most significant role in maintaining a large pool of eruptible magma, the incorporation of temperature-dependent thermal properties significantly extends the lifetime of such reservoirs. Furthermore, while deeper emplacement levels (e.g., 10 km depth) can both extend magma survival and increase melt availability, we show that a 5 km depth can also provide an adequate magma storage environment. These results provide strong support for long-lived upper crustal mushes as a staging ground for accumulation of highly eruptible, crystal-poor silicic magmas, and further assert the evolutionary link between volcanic and plutonic systems. You do not have access to this content, please speak to your institutional administrator if you feel you should have access.

The effects of magma flux variations on the formation and lifetime of large silicic magma chambers

Incremental emplacement of large silicic intrusions limits the size and lifetime of any magma chamber if earlier injected magma pulses solidify before the next pulse is emplaced. Geochronology indicates that long‐term average magma fluxes of plutons are too low for the accumulation of magma volumes larger than a single pulse. To better constrain the formation of large‐volume magma chambers, we investigate the influence of a changing emplacement rate of successive sill injections that form a composite intrusion in the upper crust. A thermal model with an explicit finite difference scheme simulates periods of transient high magma fluxes keeping the long‐term average flux small. Several scenarios regarding how fluxes vary were analyzed. A progressive increase in flux does not result in magma accumulation. Only a step‐like flux increase of at least one order of magnitude above the background flux produces a large magma reservoir. To generate a magma chamber of a melt‐crystal mix above solidus temperature with a volume of 500–2000 km3, transient high fluxes of at least 1.25 × 10 − 2km3/a, equivalent to vertical, one‐dimensional accretion rates of a few cm/a, are required. The transient high flux range where magma accumulates is largest for model scenarios with one period of transient high flux, and therefore, this emplacement style is favored for the built‐up of substantial magma chambers during pluton growth. Intrusion scenarios with three and four periods of transient high fluxes do not generate reservoirs of mobile magma, but magma mushes can be present for some hundred thousand years.

Insights into the mechanisms and timescales of pluton assembly from deformation patterns of mafic enclaves

We propose a novel method to constrain both timescales and assembly styles of intrusive bodies using the strain recorded by mafic enclaves, a common component of granitic rocks. Petrology, thermal modeling, and magma rheology are combined to investigate the evolution of strain recorded by enclaves during the piecemeal assembly of a pluton growing at various rates of magma input. The different compositions (and hence phase relations) of host magma and enclaves limits homogeneous deformation of these two materials to restricted temperature ranges, which we term “windows of mutual deformability.” Outside these windows only the less viscous host granite records any appreciable deformation and enclaves are mainly transported as rigid objects. The temporal and spatial development of the windows of mutual deformability reflects the emplacement rate of magmas into the pluton. Consequently, the radial distribution of strain recorded by enclaves can provide a picture of the thermal and rheological evolution of a magmatic body during its construction. Our approach is applied to deformation patterns of mafic enclaves in the Lago della Vacca Complex (LVC) of the Adamello Massif (Italy), to estimate the timescales of pluton emplacement. Our calculations suggest total emplacement timescales of the order 50 to 150 ky, in excellent agreement with recent high precision radiometric dating of zircons from the LVC.