1C Rate Research Articles

A High-Voltage n-type Organic Cathode Materials Enabled by Tetraalkylammonium Complexing Agents for Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries.

Tetrabutylammonium (TBA) salt of hexacyano-substituted cyclopropane dianion (Cp(CN)6 2 -) is prepared through a facile two-step synthetic protocol from commercially available materials and fully characterized as a high-voltage n-type organic cathode in rechargeable aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIBs). The addition of tetrabutylammonium triflate (TBAOTf)to the electrolyte mitigates dissolution issues, leading to enhanced cycling stability. Remarkably, the Cp(CN)6 2 - cathode demonstrates a high discharge voltage of 1.43V in AZIBs and retains 85% of its capacity after 1000 cycles at a high loading of 10mg cm- 2 and a cycling rate of 10C. These results, combined with spectroscopic analyses, elucidate a reversible two-electron redox process of Cp(CN)6 2 - facilitated by the insertion/de-insertion of TBA cation. These findings underscore the potential of Cp(CN)6 2 - as a conversion-based n-type cathode in energy storage applications.

An experimental and comparative study on passive and active PCM cooling of a battery with/out copper mesh and investigation of PCM mixtures

The carbon emission contribution to global warming accelerated both research on and transition to electric vehicles (EVs). Drivers demand high power, fast acceleration and less charging times. All these demands require high C rate charging/discharging demands from batteries. The rate of heat generation is exponentially proportional to C rates which decreases battery lifetime and may lead to thermal runaway. However, a battery thermal management system decreases thermal runaway risk and decelerates battery degradation via controlling battery temperature. In this paper, we first document the thermal conductivity enhancement via copper foam into phase change material (PCM) domain to uncover their possible use in EV thermal management applications. Maximum 15.93 times increment is achieved with a specific copper foam. Then, physical properties and behaviors of distinct PCM mixtures are documented. Homogeneity of mixtures is associated with the chemistry of PCMs and the mixture melting point is proportional to the volume weighted average of melting temperatures. The results document that the PCM with relatively lower melting point is beneficial when end of discharge temperatures considered, except for high discharge rate of 2C. Temperature uniformity across the battery increases with relatively higher melting point PCM. Experiments also document that the amount of PCM volume lost via insertion of copper foam yields higher end of discharge temperatures. Overall, both PCM and copper foam enhances temperature homogeneity and their benefit becomes more sensible during drive cycles relative to continuous charge/discharge use cases.

Bioinspired Hierarchical Porous Architecture for Enhanced Kinetics and Mechanical Integrity in Thick Cathode.

Increasing the thickness of the electrodes is considered the primary strategy to elevate battery energy density. However, as the thickness increases, rate performance, cycling performance, and mechanical stability are affected due to the sluggish ion transfer kinetics and compromised structural integrity. Inspired by the natural hierarchical porous structure of trees, electrodes with bioinspired architecture are fabricated to address these challenges. Specifically, electrodes with aligned columns consist of tree-inspired vertical channels, and hierarchical pores are constructed by screen printing and ice-templating, imparting enhanced electrochemical and mechanical performance. Employing an aqueous-based binder, the LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 cathode achieves a high areal energy density of 15.1 mWh cm-2 at a rate of 1C at mass loading of 26.0mg cm-2,benefitting from the multiscale pores that elevated charge transfer kinetics in the thick electrode. The electrodes demonstrate capacity retention of 90% at the 100th cycle at a high current density of 5.2mA cm-2. To understand the mechanisms that promote electrode performance, simplified electro-chemo-mechanical models are developed,the drying process and the charge-discharge process are simulated. The simulation results suggested that the improved performance of the designed electrode benefits from the lower ohmic overpotential and less strain gradient and stress concentration due to the hierarchical porous architecture.

Water-aerosol-assisted roasting for selective lithium extraction from spent lithium-ion batteries

Selective extraction of lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) represents a promising solution for efficient lithium recovery. Herein, a water-aerosol-assisted roasting technology is proposed to selectively extract lithium from spent lithium transition metal oxides (LTMOs) cathodes. In an exemplary recycling of spent LiCoO2, the cathode material undergoes a low-temperature (350°C) chlorinating roast process to convert it into metal chlorides, followed by a higher-temperature (500°C) roasting to facilitate the selective pyrolysis of CoCl2. The presence of water-aerosol significantly enhances the selective pyrolysis process of CoCl2, reducing roasting time eightfold compared to conventional air roasting. Subsequent water-leaching effectively extracts 99.1 % of lithium as LiCl, while only 0.2 % of cobalt is extracted, ensuring selective lithium recovery. The resulting high-purity LiCl solution and Co3O4 residue are directly utilizable for producing battery-grade Li2CO3 and LiCoO2, respectively. Regenerated LiCoO2 demonstrates excellent cycling stability, retaining 90.5 % of its capacity after 300 cycles at 1C rate. Moreover, this method is applicable to ternary cathodes (NCM) black mass, offering a sustainable, robust, and cost-effective approach for lithium extraction from spent LIBs.

Controllable assembly of polysulfides mediator induced by host-guest chemistry for upgrading energy density and longevity of lithium-sulfur batteries

Rechargeable lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries are deemed to one potential candidate for next-generation energy storage systems due to high theoretical energy density and environmental friendliness of sulfur. However, the sluggish redox kinetics and the inevitable shuttle effect of soluble polysulfides impede their commercialization process. Herein, the host–guest chemistry strategy has been proposed to fabricate ultrafine Co9S8/CoO nanoparticles embedded in porous carbon nanosheets (Co9S8/CoO@PC) for improving reversible conversion kinetics and adsorption ability toward polysulfides. Benefiting from bidirectional catalysis of Co9S8/CoO heterostructure and the fully exposed active sites on porous carbon nanosheets, the resultant Co9S8/CoO@PC-S electrode exhibits high specific capacity of 1549 mA h/g at 0.1C as well as outstanding cyclic stability with low average capacity decay of 0.021 % in 1000 cycles at high rate of 3C. Remarkably, the electrode delivers high specific capacities of 1209 and 756 mA h/g at 0.1C after 100 cycles with high sulfur loadings of 4.0 and 7.5 mg cm−2, respectively. This work provides new methodology for the controllable assembly of multiple dimensional composites to realize high energy density and long lifetime of Li-S batteries.

In Situ Formation of Stable Dual-Layer Solid Electrolyte Interphase for Enhanced Stability and Cycle Life in All-Solid-State Lithium Metal Batteries.

All-solid-state lithium metal batteries have emerged as a promising solution to overcoming the energy density and safety challenges associated with conventional lithium-ion batteries. Solid polymer electrolytes, particularly those based on poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) and dimethylformamide (DMF), demonstrate significant potential. However, interfacial side reactions between residual DMF solvents and lithium metal present substantial challenges. In this study, we investigate the in situ formation of solid electrolyte interphase protective layers to mitigate these side reactions. By incorporating F-rich additives, such as fluoroethylene carbonate and lithium difluorophosphate, we successfully establish a dual-layer inorganic SEI structure characterized by an outer LiF layer and an inner Li2O layer. Consequently, our approach extends the cycle life of lithium symmetric batteries to 3000 h. Additionally, the Li||LiFePO4 solid-state battery demonstrates exceptional stability, enduring 400 cycles at a 1C rate with an impressive capacity retention of 84%. This strategic methodology effectively leverages the benefits of residual solvents, ensuring both enhanced battery efficiency and long-term operational stability for PVDF-based all-solid-state lithium metal batteries.

Nano-organic polymers with rich redox sites as anode materials for dual-ion batteries

Organic electrode materials (OEMs) are considered one of the potential electroactive materials used in rechargeable batteries due to their high availability, low price, and sustainability. Nevertheless, the high solubility of their organic small molecules and their low electrical conductivity limit their practical applications. In this study, porous nanorods organic conjugated polymer were successfully prepared by a solvothermal method using 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetracarboxylic anhydride and azodicarbonamide as precursors for dual-ion battery anodes. The successful synthesis of polymer extends the π-conjugated structure, effectively reducing its solubility in organic electrolytes. Moreover, the azo group (NN) in the polymer was easily conjugated with the adjacent aromatic ring, increasing the utilization of the active site, thereby improving the conductivity of the material so that the polymer has a high discharge capacity (90.5 mAh g−1 at 2 C, up to 96 % capacity retention). Even with a high rate of 10 C, the polymer still exhibits excellent electrochemical performance (50.0 mAh g−1 at 270 cycles). Moreover, reaction kinetics tests show that the electrode material was based on a pseudocapacitive storage mechanism influenced by diffusion and double-layer control. Therefore, the design strategy of such a material paves the way for the application of dual-ion batteries.

Effect of thrombolysis type on the efficacy of aspiration versus stent retriever first line thrombectomy: results from the AcT trial

BackgroundIntravenous (IV) tenecteplase is increasingly being used in lieu of alteplase for acute ischemic stroke. We sought to study the influence of IV tenecteplase versus IV alteplase on the efficacy...

Stable Long‐Term Cycling of Room‐Temperature Sodium‐Sulfur Batteries Based on Non‐Complex Sulfurised Polyacrylonitrile Cathodes

The cost‐effectiveness and high theoretical energy density make room‐temperature sodium‐sulfur batteries (RT Na–S batteries) an attractive technology for large‐scale applications. However, these batteries suffer from slow kinetics and polysulfide dissolution, resulting in poor electrochemical performance. Thus, the sulfurised polyacrylonitrile (SPAN) cathode is postulated as a suitable material due to the retention of sulfur through covalent bonds and the increase in the conductivity of sulfur. Furthermore, in this work the synthesis of SPAN has been carried out using simple synthesis methods, making it scalable, economical, and without the use of toxic compounds. The incorporation of the SPAN material helps mitigate the shuttle effect, reducing the capacity loss and improving both the efficiency and lifespan of Na–S batteries. The SPAN‐based cathode demonstrates that this RT Na–S battery configuration shows high stability, reaching 1000 cycles with a capacity loss per cycle of 0.11% and a satisfactory specific capacity of 400 mAh/gs at a high rate of 2C. This study demonstrates that the utilisation of SPAN derived from a non‐complex synthesis can be a viable alternative for enhancing the future of Na–S batteries technology.

Fluorinated aggregated nanocarbon with high discharge voltage as cathode materials for alkali-metal primary batteries.

Due to its exceptionally high theoretical energy density, fluorinated carbon has been recognized as a strong contender for the cathode material in lithium primary batteries particularly valued in aerospace and related industries. However, CF x cathode with high F/C ratio, which enables higher energy density, often suffer from inadequate rate capability and are unable to satisfy escalating demand. Furthermore, their intrinsic low discharge voltage imposes constraints on their applicability. In this study, a novel and high F/C ratio fluorinated carbon nanomaterials (FNC) enriched with semi-ionic C-F bonds is synthesized at a lower fluorination temperature, using aggregated nanocarbon as the precursor. The increased presence semi-ionic C-F bonds of the FNC enhances conductivity, thereby ameliorating ohmic polarization effects during initial discharge. In addition, the spherical shape and aggregated configuration of FNC facilitate the diffusion of Li+ to abundant active sites through continuous paths. Consequently, the FNC exhibits high discharge voltage of 3.15V at 0.01C and superior rate capability in lithium primary batteries. At a high rate of 20C, power density of 33,694Wkg-1 and energy density of 1,250Wh kg-1 are achieved. Moreover, FNC also demonstrates notable electrochemical performance in sodium/potassium-CF x primary batteries. This new-type alkali-metal/CF x primary batteries exhibit outstanding rate capability, rendering them with vast potential in high-power applications.

Porous activated carbon integrated carbon nitride nanosheets as functionalized separators for the efficient polysulfide entrapment in Li[sbnd]S batteries

Electrification of vehicles, hybrid aircraft and the advancement of portable electronics are exacting the deployment of high energy-dense batteries. The high theoretical capacity of sulfur (1675 mAh g−1), cost-effectiveness and environmental benignity of the lithium‑sulfur batteries (LSBs) are propitious for electrochemical energy storage beyond Li-ion battery technology. In this work, we described a simple, scalable preparation and electrochemical performance of porous activated carbon (PC)-infused graphitic carbon nitride (GCN) nanosheets with various ratios (PC@GCN 11, PC@GCN 12 and PC@GCN 21) as a polysulfide anchoring functionalized separator for LSBs. The high specific area (822 m2/g), hetero porosity, conductive carbon framework, surface functionalities and enriched N-doping of the PC@GCN synergistically induce mitigation of polysulfides via chemical and physical adsorption pathways in LSBs. The PC@GCN 21 modified separator demonstrates a high initial discharge capacity of 1389 mAh g−1 at a 0.1C rate and exhibits better capacity retention over 500 cycles at a 1C rate (655 mAh g−1) with sulfur loading of 3.8 mg/cm2 accompanied by high coulombic efficiency (94 %). The assembled cell with high S-loading (5.12 mg/cm2) shows a high initial discharge capacity of 712 mAh g−1 at 0.1C rate conditions. High Li-ion transference number (0.714), stable shuttle current, minimal coulombic efficiency loss (0.84 %), low shuttle factor and negligible self-discharge behaviour support the superior performance of the PC@GCN 21 coated cells. This report demonstrates that combining the high surface area, non-polar porous carbon with polar graphitic carbon nitride is a practical approach for designing metal-free functionalized separators for energy-dense LSBs.

Operando Fabricated Quasi-Solid-State Electrolyte Hinders Polysulfide Shuttles in an Advanced Li-S Battery

Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries are a promising option for energy storage due to their theoretical high energy density and the use of abundant, low-cost sulfur cathodes. Nevertheless, several obstacles remain, including the dissolution of lithium polysulfides (LiPS) into the electrolyte and a restricted operational temperature range. This manuscript presents a promising approach to addressing these challenges. The manuscript describes a straightforward and scalable in situ thermal polymerization method for synthesizing a quasi-solid-state electrolyte (QSE) by gelling pentaerythritol tetraacrylate (PETEA), azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN), and a dual salt lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) and lithium nitrate (LiNO3)-based liquid electrolyte. The resulting freestanding quasi-solid-state electrolyte (QSE) effectively inhibits the polysulfide shuttle effect across a wider temperature range of −25 °C to 45 °C. The electrolyte’s ability to prevent LiPS migration and cluster formation has been corroborated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Raman spectroscopy analyses. The optimized QSE composition appears to act as a physical barrier, thereby significantly improving battery performance. Notably, the capacity retention has been demonstrated to reach 95% after 100 cycles at a 2C rate. Furthermore, the simple and scalable synthesis process paves the way for the potential commercialization of this technology.

Rice husk-based activated carbon/carbon nanotubes composites for synergistically enhancing the performance of lead-carbon batteries

Lead-carbon batteries (LCBs), an advanced form of lead-acid battery (LAB) technology, incorporate super-capacitive carbon materials into the negative electrode. Rice husk-based activated carbon (RHAC) is a promising additive for LCBs due to its favorable properties. However, RHAC's amorphous structure impedes electronic conduction, and its zigzag microporous channels hinder ion transport, leading to degraded high-rate performance. This study addresses these issues by growing carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in situ on RHAC through a one-step heat treatment, resulting in carbon nanotubes-loaded RHAC (CNTs/RHAC), and the electronic conductivity and ionic conductivity are simultaneously enhanced. When CNTs constitute 30 wt.% of CNTs/RHAC, the negative electrode achieves a cycle life of 4721 cycles at a 2C rate under 50% state of charge, which is 10.04 times that of the blank anode. The enhanced performance is attributed to the synergistic effects of CNTs and RHAC, where CNTs form long-range conductive networks among the negative electrode active material (NAM) and facilitate the diffusion and electro-deposition of Pb2+, while the high specific surface area (SSA) and hierarchical porous structure of RHAC enhance its capacitive function, leading to a stable lead-carbon composite structure.

Exploring the Electrochemical Superiority of V2O5/TiO2@Ti3C2-MXene Hybrid Nanostructures for Enhanced Lithium-Ion Battery Performance.

The use of vanadium(V)-based materials as electrode materials in electrochemical energy storage (EES) devices is promising due to their structural and chemical variety, abundance, and low cost. V-based materials with a layered structure and high multielectron transfer in the redox reaction have been actively explored for energy storage. Our current work presents the structural and electrochemical properties of a vanadium-based composite with TiO2@Ti3C2 MXene, referred to as VM. This composite is obtained through the in situ thermal decomposition of the VO2(OH)/Ti3C2mixture, which is achieved by solution mixing and drying. The material structure is confirmed using various characterization tools, which establish an orthorhombic V2O5 nanostructure compositing with nanocrystalline TiO2@Ti3C2. VM with 5 wt % MXene, referred to as VM5, can achieve 460 mAhg-1 at a current density of 0.1 Ag1- and 290 mAhg-1 at 1 Ag1-, with an average coulombic efficiency of 98.5%. The presence of the V2O5/TiO2 (nanocrystals) heterojunction attached with Ti3C2 sheets contributed to reduced charge transfer resistance. The cyclic stability shows a capacity retention of 62% over 500 cycles at 1 Ag1- (4C rate, where 1C equals 0.25 Ag1-) with a 0.22 capacity drop with each cycle. Dunn's approach to examining the charge storage mechanism demonstrates 72% contribution of the surface-dominant capacitive process and 28% of the diffusion-controlled intercalation process at 0.4 mVs-1, suggesting a potential high-performance pseudocapacitive hybrid electrode material for lithium-ion batteries.

Thermal management for the prismatic lithium-ion battery pack by immersion cooling with Fluorinated liquid

This study constructs a novel FS49-based battery thermal management system (BTMS), proposing an optimization method for the system energy density and an indirect control method for the system cooling capacity. The boiling of dielectric refrigerant occurred at the battery surface, which provided strong and uniform cooling for each battery cell. The results show that the peak temperature difference of liquid immersion cooling (LIC) module during 1C rate discharging and charging was reduced by 91.3% and 94.44%, respectively, compared to the natural convection (NC) module. The reduction of temperature nonuniformity greatly reduced the state of charge (SOC) inhomogeneity of different cells within the module. Moreover, the energy density of LIC module can be optimized by reducing the cell spacing and liquid filling ratio. Comparing with 100% filling rate, the module maximum temperature corresponding to 25% filling rate (with wick) during 2C rate discharging is only increased by 1.6℃, however, the module peak temperature difference is reduced by 53.3%, and the energy density is increased by 13.14%. In addition, Equivalent circuit model (ECM) and volume of fluid (VOF) model were used to simulate the LIC module, and the numerical results are in good agreement with the experimental data. This study provides a systematic design plan and numerical method for the engineering application of LIC in the field of BTMS.

Conducting LixPOy Interface Generated From Insulating Residual Lithium Compounds on LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 Surface Improves Cycle Life and Assists in Fast Cycling.

LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC811) is the most promising cathode material for future Li-ion batteries (LIBs). However, the bulk and surface structural instabilities retard its commercial success. Surface chemical instability toward exposure to moisture (H2O and CO2) leads to the formation of residual lithium compounds (RLCs: Li2CO3, LiOH) on the surface. The alkaline RLCs form a resistive layer on the surface of NMC811 by undergoing parasitic side reactions with electrolytes. Herein, an "Adverse-to-Beneficial" approach is proposed to eliminate RLCs by chemically transforming them into a LixPOy (Li3PO4 and LiPO3) interface. The interface protects the NMC811 surface from moisture attack and unwanted side reactions with electrolytes. It enhances the cycle life by retaining 70% of the initial capacity after 300 cycles at a 0.5C rate and 60% after 500 cycles, even at a 5C rate in a voltage window of 3.0-4.3V versus Li+/Li. The coexistence of two Li-conducting phases lowers the voltage polarization of the kinetically sluggish H1 → M phase transition to unlock fast cycling, reduces cationic disorder, improves coulombic efficiency, enhances ion diffusion kinetics, and minimizes particle crack formation after long-term cycling. Hence, the LixPOy interface yields multifaceted benefits in the storage, processing, and electrochemistry of NMC811.

Boosting the rate performance of all-solid-state batteries with a novel double layer solid electrolyte

When compared to traditional liquid electrolytes, solid electrolytes face significant challenges due to insufficient ionic conductivity and poor interfacial contact. To overcome these challenges, a cathode-supported double layer gradient structured solid polymer electrolyte membrane is developed. This innovative design enhances the wetting ability of the solid electrolyte on the cathode, leading to improved rate performance. Furthermore, the double layer solid electrolyte enhances mechanical strength, ensuring excellent cycling performance. As a result, the LiFePO4/Li solid state battery demonstrates superior battery performances, for instance, it can achieve a discharge capacity of 121 mAh g−1 at a current rate of 5C, with a capacity retention of 99 % after 380 cycles. This work offers a promising strategy for further enhancing the performance of all solid-state batteries.

Enhancing electric field intensity of interfacial electric double layer to improve properties of solid electrolyte interface for sodium-ion batteries

The electrical double layer (EDL) provides a critical area, where the specific adsorption on the electrode dominates the initial structure and chemical composition of the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) film. Therefore, the SEI can be optimized by adjusting the properties of the EDL. Here, we regulate the properties of EDL to optimize the composition and morphology of the SEI film on the hard carbon anode surface by adding NaF with small molecule structure. The preferential accumulation of NaF additives on the electrode surface enhances the electric field intensity and promotes electrolyte decomposition. That is, the formed SEI film rich in inorganic NaF and B-O components, can significantly improve the storage capacity of sodium ions in the hard carbon anode and accelerate the rapid transport of sodium ions. This strategy enables the cycling capacity to improve by 13.5 %, and maintain a stable capacity retention rate of 86.2 % at the rate of 1C after 500 cycles, thereby extending the lifespan and increasing the capacity of the rechargeable battery. The strategy that utilizing small molecule additives to enhance the electric field intensity of EDL provides a new approach to improve the performances of SEI film and battery performances.

Comparative analysis of data-driven electric vehicle battery health models across different operating conditions

The work covers the development of a data-driven algorithm and computes the performance of learning models for lithium-ion battery state of health (SOH) estimation. A wide range of environmental and temperature conditions (15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C) at different charging and discharging rates of 1C and 2C are used for electric vehicle battery health estimation. The result of the tested data of cell ‘a’ is validated with a different set of cell ‘b’ on identical test parameters, and the results are tabulated and compared. At 25 °C, the mean absolute errors for the regression algorithms decision tree (DT), k-nearest neighbor (KNN), and random forest (RF) are 3.78641E-03, 3.62524E-03, and 6.16931E-03. The mean absolute percent error for regression algorithms DT, KNN, and RF is 1.48921E-03, 1.40631E-03, and 2.40260E-03. The root mean square error for regression algorithms DT, KNN, and RF is 1.26813E-02, 9.73320E-03, and 1.17238E-02, and the mean squared error for regression algorithms DT, KNN, and RF is 1.60816E-04, 9.47351E-05, and 1.37448E-04. The results show that the KNN and DT methods accurately estimate the SOH under diversified operating conditions in comparison with RF methods and can foster advanced battery health monitoring systems.

Experimental study of a novel guided sequential immersion cooling system for battery thermal management

Immersion cooling exhibits superior cooling performance compared to traditional battery thermal management systems (BTMS). However, a significant challenge of immersion cooling is the spatial variation of temperature within both the coolant and lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). This research proposes a guided sequential immersion cooling (GSIC) BTMS to address this issue. Experimental studies were conducted to evaluate the heat dissipation performance of the GSIC structure under various conditions, including extreme loads. The results indicate that under the static flow immersion cooling (SFIC) scheme, cooling the tabs significantly influences the overall performance. Immersing the tabs can reduce the maximum battery temperature by 10.403 °C, although the spatial variation of temperature persists. Under forced flow immersion cooling (FFIC) conditions, increasing the coolant flow rate dissipates the heat generated by LIBs more effectively. Even at an extreme discharge rate of 5C, the maximum temperature remains below 45 °C. The average temperature reduction at the tabs is greater than the battery body, and with increased flow rates, the temperature difference between the two can be maintained within 1 °C under all conditions. As the flow rate keeps increasing, the average temperature at the tabs gets even lower than the battery body at low loads. This demonstrates that the GSIC BTMS can suppress the temperature rise at the tabs, which is a critical heat risk. Moreover, the temperature uniformity of the LIBs module is improved. As the flow rate increases, the temperature difference within the LIBs module decreases when the discharge rates is between 1C and 5C. Theoretical analysis confirms that increasing flow rates for low loads can suppress temperature rise, albeit with increased power consumption and reduced cooling efficiency. High flow rates are more suitable for high load conditions of the LIBs. These results validate the feasibility of the GSIC BTMS and provide new insights for the development of immersion cooling BTMS.