Rapid Visual Information Processing Research Articles

Cognitive and Mood Effects of a Nutrient Enriched Breakfast Bar in Healthy Adults: A Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel Groups Study.

Objectives: Few previous studies have assessed the effects of concomitant administration of multiple potentially psychoactive nutrients. Methods: 95 healthy adult participants consumed either a nutrient enriched breakfast bar (containing α-Linolenic acid, l-tyrosine, l-theanine, vitamins, minerals and 21.5 mg of caffeine) or an isocaloric, macronutrient matched control bar for 56 days. Cognitive function and mood were assessed pre-dose and at 40- and 160-min post-dose on the 1st and 56th day of the intervention period. Results: The results demonstrated acute effects of treatment across post-dose assessments on both assessment days in terms of alertness, and on tasks assessing attention, working and episodic memory and executive function, including cognitively demanding Serial subtraction and Rapid Visual Information Processing tasks. There were no evident chronic effects independent of the breakfast bars’ acute effects. Discussion: These results demonstrate that a nutrient enriched breakfast bar with low caffeine content can exert striking beneficial effects on acute cognitive function and alertness.

Effect of insulin therapy and dietary adjustments on safety and performance during simulated soccer tests in people with type 1 diabetes: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

BackgroundDespite the reduction in glycemic derangement in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D) through dietary and therapeutic adjustments implemented before, during and after continuous exercise, evidence for its effectiveness with intermittent forms of exercise, such as soccer, is still lacking.Methods/designWe designed a study protocol for a randomized, crossover, double-blinded, controlled trial, for the evaluation of the effect that a strategy of dietary and therapeutic modifications may have on safety and performance of persons with T1D in soccer training sessions and cognitive testing. Inclusion criteria comprise: age older than 18 years, more than 2 years since T1D diagnosis, low C-peptide level, a stable insulin regimen, HbA1c less than 9.0% and regular participation in soccer activities. Our primary outcome evaluates safety regarding hypoglycemia events in patients using dietary and therapeutic adjustments, compared with the performance under the implementation of current American Diabetes Association (ADA) usual recommendations for nutritional and pharmacological adjustments for exercise. Additionally, we will evaluate as secondary outcomes: soccer performance, indexed by performance in well-established soccer skill tests, cognitive functions (indexed by Stroop, digital vigilance test (DVT), Corsi block-tapping task (CBP), and rapid visual information processing (RVIP) tests), and glycemic control measured with a continuous glucose monitor (CGM).DiscussionDietary and insulin adjustments standardized under a 4-step method strategy have never been tested in a clinical trial setting with intermittent forms of exercise, such as soccer. We hypothesize that through this strategy we will observe better performance by persons with T1D in soccer and cognitive evaluations, and more stable control of glycemic parameters before, during and after exercise execution, indexed by CGM measurements.Trial registrationISRCTN, ISRCTN17447843. Registered on 5 January 2017.

Validation of the human odor span task: effects of nicotine.

Amongst non-smokers, nicotine generally enhances performance on tasks of attention, with limited effect on working memory. In contrast, nicotine has been shown to produce robust enhancements of working memory in non-humans. To address this gap, the present study investigated the effects of nicotine on the performance of non-smokers on a cognitive battery which included a working memory task reverse-translated from use with rodents (the odor span task, OST). Nicotine has been reported to enhance OST performance in rats and the present study assessed whether this effect generalizes to human performance. Thirty non-smokers were tested on three occasions after consuming either placebo, 2mg, or 4mg nicotine gum. On each occasion, participants completed a battery of clinical and experimental tasks of working memory and attention. Nicotine was associated with dose-dependent enhancements in sustained attention, as evidenced by increased hit accuracy on the rapid visual information processing (RVIP) task. However, nicotine failed to produce main effects on OST performance or on alternative measures of working memory (digit span, spatial span, letter-number sequencing, 2-back) or attention (digits forward, 0-back). Interestingly, enhancement of RVIP performance occurred concomitant to significant reductions in self-reported attention/concentration. Human OST performance was significantly related to N-back performance, and as in rodents, OST accuracy declined with increasing memory load. Given the similarity of human and rodent OST performance under baseline conditions and the strong association between OST and visual 0-back accuracy, the OST may be particular useful in the study of conditions characterized by inattention.

Neural correlates of atomoxetine improving inhibitory control and visual processing in Drug-naïve adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Atomoxetine improves inhibitory control and visual processing in healthy volunteers and adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, little is known about the neural correlates of these two functions after chronic treatment with atomoxetine. This study aimed to use the counting Stroop task with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) to investigate the changes related to inhibitory control and visual processing in adults with ADHD. This study is an 8-week, placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized clinical trial of atomoxetine in 24 drug-naïve adults with ADHD. We investigated the changes of treatment with atomoxetine compared to placebo-treated counterparts using the counting Stroop fMRI and two CANTAB tests: rapid visual information processing (RVP) for inhibitory control and delayed matching to sample (DMS) for visual processing. Atomoxetine decreased activations in the right inferior frontal gyrus and anterior cingulate cortex, which were correlated with the improvement in inhibitory control assessed by the RVP. Also, atomoxetine increased activation in the left precuneus, which was correlated with the improvement in the mean latency of correct responses assessed by the DMS. Moreover, anterior cingulate activation in the pre-treatment was able to predict the improvements of clinical symptoms. Treatment with atomoxetine may improve inhibitory control to suppress interference and may enhance the visual processing to process numbers. In addition, the anterior cingulate cortex might play an important role as a biological marker for the treatment effectiveness of atomoxetine. Hum Brain Mapp 38:4850-4864, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Effects of Dietary Nitrate Supplementation on Physiological Responses, Cognitive Function, and Exercise Performance at Moderate and Very-High Simulated Altitude.

Purpose: Nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability is reduced during acute altitude exposure, contributing toward the decline in physiological and cognitive function in this environment. This study evaluated the effects of nitrate () supplementation on NO bioavailability, physiological and cognitive function, and exercise performance at moderate and very-high simulated altitude.Methods:Ten males (mean (SD): : 60.9 (10.1) ml·kg−1·min−1) rested and performed exercise twice at moderate (~14.0% O2; ~3,000 m) and twice at very-high (~11.7% O2; ~4,300 m) simulated altitude. Participants ingested either 140 ml concentrated -rich (BRJ; ~12.5 mmol ) or -deplete (PLA; 0.01 mmol ) beetroot juice 2 h before each trial. Participants rested for 45 min in normobaric hypoxia prior to completing an exercise task. Exercise comprised a 45 min walk at 30% and a 3 km time-trial (TT), both conducted on a treadmill at a 10% gradient whilst carrying a 10 kg backpack to simulate altitude hiking. Plasma nitrite concentration ([]), peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2), pulmonary oxygen uptake (), muscle and cerebral oxygenation, and cognitive function were measured throughout.Results: Pre-exercise plasma [] was significantly elevated in BRJ compared with PLA (p = 0.001). Pulmonary was reduced (p = 0.020), and SpO2 was elevated (p = 0.005) during steady-state exercise in BRJ compared with PLA, with similar effects at both altitudes. BRJ supplementation enhanced 3 km TT performance relative to PLA by 3.8% [1,653.9 (261.3) vs. 1718.7 (213.0) s] and 4.2% [1,809.8 (262.0) vs. 1,889.1 (203.9) s] at 3,000 and 4,300 m, respectively (p = 0.019). Oxygenation of the gastrocnemius was elevated during the TT consequent to BRJ (p = 0.011). The number of false alarms during the Rapid Visual Information Processing Task tended to be lower with BRJ compared with PLA prior to altitude exposure (p = 0.056). Performance in all other cognitive tasks did not differ significantly between BRJ and PLA at any measurement point (p ≥ 0.141).Conclusion: This study suggests that BRJ improves physiological function and exercise performance, but not cognitive function, at simulated moderate and very-high altitude.

The effect of COMT Val158Met and DRD2 C957T polymorphisms on executive function and the impact of early life stress.

IntroductionPrevious research has indicated that variation in genes encoding catechol‐O‐methyltransferase (COMT) and dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) may influence cognitive function and that this may confer vulnerability to the development of mental health disorders such as schizophrenia. However, increasing evidence suggests environmental factors such as early life stress may interact with genetic variants in affecting these cognitive outcomes. This study investigated the effect of COMT Val158Met and DRD2 C957T polymorphisms on executive function and the impact of early life stress in healthy adults.MethodsOne hundred and twenty‐two healthy adult males (mean age 35.2 years, range 21–63) were enrolled in the study. Cognitive function was assessed using Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery and early life stress was assessed using the Childhood Traumatic Events Scale (Pennebaker & Susman, 1988).Results DRD2 C957T was significantly associated with executive function, with CC homozygotes having significantly reduced performance in spatial working memory and spatial planning. A significant genotype–trauma interaction was found in Rapid Visual Information Processing test, a measure of sustained attention, with CC carriers who had experienced early life stress exhibiting impaired performance compared to the CC carriers without early life stressful experiences. There were no significant findings for COMT Val158Met.ConclusionsThis study supports previous findings that DRD2 C957T significantly affects performance on executive function related tasks in healthy individuals and shows for the first time that some of these effects may be mediated through the impact of childhood traumatic events. Future work should aim to clarify further the effect of stress on neuronal systems that are known to be vulnerable in mental health disorders and more specifically what the impact of this might be on cognitive function.

48. Associations Between Electrophysiological Measures of Selective Attention and Neurocognitive Measures of Working Memory and Attention in Antipsychotic-Naive, First-Episode Schizophrenia Patients

Background: Deficits in attention and working memory are already present in early stages of schizophrenia. The P3a and b event related brain potentials (ERPs) are believed to underlie processes of attention and working memory, but, only limited research has been performed on the associations between these psychophysiological and cognitive deficits, particularly in the early stages of schizophrenia. We aimed to investigate associations between P3a and P3b amplitudes and measures of attention and working memory in a large cohort of antipsychotic-naive, first-episode schizophrenia patients (AN-FES) and age and sex-matched healthy controls (HC). Methods: Eighty-three AN-FES patients and 108 HC, matched for age and gender, were assessed for their P3a and b amplitude and latency with the selective attention paradigm from the Copenhagen Psychophysiological Test Battery (CPTB). In addition, the Spatial Working Memory (SWM) and Rapid Visual Information Processing test (RVP) from the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) were used to assess working memory and attention. Outcome measure for the SWM was Strategy, wherein a low score represents a more effective strategy. For the RVP, we used the A’ measure as outcome. This measure represents how well the participant is able to detect target sequences. Results: P3a and P3b amplitudes were significantly reduced in our AN-FES patients compared to HC. In addition, the P3a peak latency was earlier in the AN-FES patients than in HC, while P3b latency did not differ between the groups. Furthermore, AN-FES patients scored significantly lower on the SWM task and the RVP compared to HC. A positive association was found between RVP and P3b in our total group. However, this effect disappeared when split into the two subgroups. In contrast, SWM was positively associated with P3b in HC, while this effect was neither present in AN-FES nor in the total group. Conclusion: Our results provide evidence for P3a and P3b amplitude reductions as well as neurocognitive deficits in AN-FES patients compared to age and gender matched HC. This supports previous data that electrophysiological and neurocognitive deficits already exist in early stages of schizophrenia, and are not due to use of antipsychotics. Our data support significant yet rather weak associations between P3b amplitude and both working memory and attention, although the association between working memory and P3b was only found in HC and not in AN-FES.

Construct and concurrent validity of the Cambridge neuropsychological automated tests in Portuguese older adults without neuropsychiatric diagnoses and with Alzheimer’s disease dementia

ABSTRACTWe aimed to analyze the construct and concurrent validity of the Rapid Visual Information Processing (RVP), Paired Associates Learning (PAL), Reaction Time (RTI), and Spatial Working Memory (SWM) tests from the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB®). Inclusion criteria were checked in a first session. The CANTAB and additional pencil-and-paper tests were administered within 1 week. The participants (aged 69–96 years) were 137 Portuguese adults without neuropsychiatric diagnoses and 37 adults with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer’s disease dementia. Comparisons were made between the CANTAB tests and between these tests and the Rey Complex Figure Test (RCFT), Verbal Fluency (VF) test, and some Wechsler Memory Scale-III and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III subtests. Most intra-test correlations were stronger than the CANTAB inter-test correlations. The RVP correlated more with VF animals (.44), the PAL with RCFT immediate recall (–.52), the RTI with RVP mean latency (.42), and the SWM with Spatial Span backward (–.39).

Evidence of practice effect in CANTAB spatial working memory test in a cohort of patients with mild cognitive impairment

ABSTRACTThe Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) is a system of neuropsychological tests frequently used to track the progression of cognitive deficits in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). We investigated test–retest reliability in seven CANTAB tests. Twenty-five MCI patients, with either AD-like or conflicting/normal cerebrospinal fluid profiles underwent three testing sessions at 6-month intervals, including the following tests: Reaction Time and Rapid Visual Information Processing (assessing attention and reaction times); Delayed Matching-to-Sample, Paired Associates Learning, Spatial Recognition Memory and Pattern Recognition Memory (assessing memory); Spatial Working Memory (assessing executive functions). No significant difference was found when comparing the two groups. Many CANTAB measures obtained low or marginal test-retest coefficients. We observed a marked improvement in Spatial Working Memory (SWM) in both groups when comparing the baseline performance with the 6-month follow-up, but no difference in performance between 6- and 12-month follow-ups. A similar trend was documented in Paired Associates Learning (PAL), but the effect size was small. Such improvement may result from a practice effect, likely due to the learning of an effective strategy. Our evidence raised an important issue concerning the need for methodological caution when interpreting the results of longitudinal studies using SWM and PAL.

Functional Brain Activity Changes after 4 Weeks Supplementation with a Multi-Vitamin/Mineral Combination: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial Exploring Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Steady-State Visual Evoked Potentials during Working Memory.

This study explored the neurocognitive effects of 4 weeks daily supplementation with a multi-vitamin and -mineral combination (MVM) in healthy adults (aged 18–40 years). Using a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled design, participants underwent assessments of brain activity using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI; n = 32, 16 females) and Steady-State Visual Evoked Potential recordings (SSVEP; n = 39, 20 females) during working memory and continuous performance tasks at baseline and following 4 weeks of active MVM treatment or placebo. There were several treatment-related effects suggestive of changes in functional brain activity associated with MVM administration. SSVEP data showed latency reductions across centro-parietal regions during the encoding period of a spatial working memory task following 4 weeks of active MVM treatment. Complementary results were observed with the fMRI data, in which a subset of those completing fMRI assessment after SSVEP assessment (n = 16) demonstrated increased BOLD response during completion of the Rapid Visual Information Processing task (RVIP) within regions of interest including bilateral parietal lobes. No treatment-related changes in fMRI data were observed in those who had not first undergone SSVEP assessment, suggesting these results may be most evident under conditions of fatigue. Performance on the working memory and continuous performance tasks did not significantly differ between treatment groups at follow-up. In addition, within the fatigued fMRI sample, increased RVIP BOLD response was correlated with the change in number of target detections as part of the RVIP task. This study provides preliminary evidence of changes in functional brain activity during working memory associated with 4 weeks of daily treatment with a multi-vitamin and -mineral combination in healthy adults, using two distinct but complementary measures of functional brain activity.

Lost in translation? The potential psychobiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus (JB-1) fails to modulate stress or cognitive performance in healthy male subjects

BackgroundPreclinical studies have identified certain probiotics as psychobiotics – live microorganisms with a potential mental health benefit. Lactobacillus rhamnosus (JB-1) has been shown to reduce stress-related behaviour, corticosterone release and alter central expression of GABA receptors in an anxious mouse strain. However, it is unclear if this single putative psychobiotic strain has psychotropic activity in humans. Consequently, we aimed to examine if these promising preclinical findings could be translated to healthy human volunteers. ObjectivesTo determine the impact of L. rhamnosus on stress-related behaviours, physiology, inflammatory response, cognitive performance and brain activity patterns in healthy male participants. MethodsAn 8week, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over design was employed. Twenty-nine healthy male volunteers participated. Participants completed self-report stress measures, cognitive assessments and resting electroencephalography (EEG). Plasma IL10, IL1β, IL6, IL8 and TNFα levels and whole blood Toll-like 4 (TLR-4) agonist-induced cytokine release were determined by multiplex ELISA. Salivary cortisol was determined by ELISA and subjective stress measures were assessed before, during and after a socially evaluated cold pressor test (SECPT). ResultsThere was no overall effect of probiotic treatment on measures of mood, anxiety, stress or sleep quality and no significant effect of probiotic over placebo on subjective stress measures, or the HPA response to the SECPT. Visuospatial memory performance, attention switching, rapid visual information processing, emotion recognition and associated EEG measures did not show improvement over placebo. No significant anti-inflammatory effects were seen as assessed by basal and stimulated cytokine levels. ConclusionsL. rhamnosus was not superior to placebo in modifying stress-related measures, HPA response, inflammation or cognitive performance in healthy male participants. These findings highlight the challenges associated with moving promising preclinical studies, conducted in an anxious mouse strain, to healthy human participants. Future interventional studies investigating the effect of this psychobiotic in populations with stress-related disorders are required.

A test of the cognitive-enhancing potential of low-dose mecamylamine in healthy non-smokers.

The beneficial effects of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) agonists on cognitive performance have been widely shown. Paradoxically, recent preclinical studies employing extremely low doses of nAChR antagonists have also found cognitive enhancement, perhaps pointing to a novel treatment mechanism for cognitive deficits. The aim was to test whether low doses of the nAChR antagonist mecamylamine would benefit performance in human volunteers. The study employed a double-blind within-subject design. Over four separate days, healthy adult non-smokers (n=23) were tested with placebo and three trace doses of mecamylamine (0.25-1mg, p.o.), adjusted for body weight. Participants performed three computerized tasks: a task of spatial selective attention and stimulus detection, the rapid visual information processing task (RVIPT) taxing sustained attention and working memory, and a change detection short-term memory task. Subjective state and vital signs were assessed repeatedly. Mecamylamine did not improve performance in any of the tasks. Any trends that were observed instead pointed toward performance impairment. Mecamylamine also had no effects on subjective state or vital signs. The present results do not support the hypothesized cognitive-enhancing potential of low doses of mecamylamine. Contrary to preclinical reports, these findings speak against low-dose nAChR antagonism as a novel avenue for treating cognitive deficits.

Effects of a single, oral 60 mg caffeine dose on attention in healthy adult subjects.

Caffeine induces positive effects on sustained attention, although studies assessing the acute effects of low caffeine dose (<75 mg) on sustained attention are limited and use short-term tests. Therefore, we investigated the acute effects of a 60 mg dose of caffeine on sustained attention in tests lasting up to 45 minutes using 82 low or non-caffeine-consuming healthy male ( n=41) and female ( n=41) adults aged between 40 and 60 years. Vigilance was measured using Mackworth Clock test, Rapid Visual Information Processing Test, adaptive tracking test, saccadic eye movement and attention switch test. Effects on mood and fatigue were analysed using Bond and Lader and Caffeine Research visual analogue scales, and Samn-Perelli questionnaire. Saliva sampling was performed for both compliance and caffeine pharmacokinetic analysis. Administration of a 60 mg caffeine dose resulted in a significant improvement in sustained attention compared with the placebo. Also a significantly improved peak saccadic velocity and reaction time performance was found, and decreased error rate. Significantly increased feelings of alertness, contentment and overall mood after caffeine treatment compared with placebo were observed. This study demonstrated that in healthy adult subjects oral administration of a single 60 mg caffeine dose elicited a clear enhancement of sustained attention and alertness, measured both in multiple objective performances and in subjective scales.

Pharmacokinetics, Safety and Cognitive Function Profile of Rupatadine 10, 20 and 40 mg in Healthy Japanese Subjects: A Randomised Placebo-Controlled Trial.

IntroductionRupatadine is a marketed second generation antihistamine, with anti-PAF activity, indicated for symptomatic treatment of allergic rhinitis and urticaria. This study was conducted to evaluate the pharmacokinetics (PK), pharmacodynamics (PD), safety and tolerability of rupatadine in healthy Japanese subjects after single and multiple oral doses.MethodsIn this randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 27 male and female healthy Japanese subjects were administered single and multiple escalating rupatadine dose of 10, 20 and 40 mg or placebo. Blood samples were collected at different time points for PK measurements and subjects were assessed for safety and tolerability. The effect of rupatadine on cognitive functioning was evaluated by means of computerized cognitive tests: rapid visual information processing (RVP), reaction time (RT), spatial working memory (SWM) and visual analogue scales (VAS).ResultsExposure to rupatadine as measured by Cmax and AUC was found to increase in a dose dependent manner over the dose range of 10–40 mg for both single and multiple dose administration. The safety assessments showed that all treatment related side effects were of mild intensity and there were no serious adverse events (SAEs) or withdrawals due to treatment–emergent adverse events (TEAEs) in this study. The therapeutic dose of rupatadine did not show any CNS impairment in any of the cognitive tests.ConclusionsThis study demonstrated that rupatadine is safe and well tolerated by Japanese healthy subjects. The PK-PD profile confirmed previous experience with rupatadine.

Dietary Nitrate Reduces Blood Pressure And Improves Walking Economy And Cognitive Function In Older People

Nitric oxide (NO), produced by the enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS), is a signalling molecule that regulates vascular tone, neurotransmission and mitochondrial function. NOS activity declines in older age contributing to increased morbidity and reduced exercise capacity. Increasing the intake of dietary inorganic nitrate (NO3-) might elevate NO bioavailability via an alternative NO3- -nitrite (NO2-) -NO reduction pathway and therefore compensate for NOS dysfunction. PURPOSE: To determine whether dietary supplementation with nitrate-rich (BR), compared to nitrate-depleted (PL), beetroot juice in healthy older adults will reduce blood pressure (BP), lower pulmonary O2 uptake (VO2) during walking and improve cognitive function. METHODS: 30 participants (age 73±3 yr, BMI 25±3 kg/m2) underwent 10-day supplementation periods with BR (~0.6 g NO3-/d) and PL (negligible NO3-) separated by a 10-day wash-out in a double-blind randomised cross-over design. The speed and accuracy of components of cognitive function were assessed via a computer-based Rapid Visual Information Processing (RVIP) test. Pulmonary VO2 was measured during three 6-min bouts of walking at 80% of gas exchange threshold. RESULTS: Plasma [NO3-] and [NO2-] were greater after BR (361 ± 55 μM and 969 ± 687 nM) than PL (34 ± 26 μM and 162 ± 96 nM) (both P<0.05). Systolic BP was lower after BR (124 ± 14 mmHg) than PL (129 ± 15 mmHg; P<0.05) but diastolic BP was not different between BR (69 ± 7 mmHg) and PL (70 ± 8 mmHg; P>0.05). Steady state VO2 during treadmill walking was lower after BR (861 ± 195 mL/min) than PL (892 ± 196 mL/min; P<0.05). The number of correct responses (BR: 20 ± 5, PL: 19 ± 6; P>0.05) and reaction time (BR: 726 ± 200, PL: 715 ± 146 ms; P>0.05) during the RVIP test were not different, but the number of errors made was lower in BR (6 ± 8) than PL (10 ± 11; P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The 4% reduction in systolic BP following BR may reduce the incidence of adverse cardiovascular events in older age. The lower O2 cost of walking and the lower number of errors made in the RVIP task in BR compared to PL suggests positive effects on cellular metabolism and cognitive function following NO3- supplementation. Collectively, these findings may have important implications for enhancing quality of life in older age.

No Effect of Sugar Sweetened or Diet Beverages on Performance of a Battery of Cognitive Assessment Tests

IntroductionDietary sugar has been alleged to contribute to the obesity epidemic. As a primary source of sugar in the American diet Sugar Sweetened Beverages (SSB) have been specifically targeted for caution. It has been argued that it is not just an issue of calories or metabolic products, but also sweetness of beverages as both SSB and diet beverages which may produce changes in cerebral activity and associated cognitive impairment under experimental conditions. However, few data exists on how typical consumption of these beverages may affect cognitive function.MethodsFor six months all participants followed the ADA Exchange Diet, individually tailored according to each participant's caloric needs. Participants were required to incorporate 2 servings (12oz) per day of a Sugar Sweetened Beverage (SSB) or Diet Beverage (Diet), both caffeine free. A third group who drank only water were also included as a control. Before and after the intervention participants were assessed on a battery of tests that measure a wide variety of cognitive functions (CANTAB). The tests used were: Spatial Working Memory (SWM), Intra‐Extra Dimensional Set Shift (IED), Stop Signal Task (SST), Delayed Matching to Sample (DMS), Paired Associates Learning (PAL), and Rapid Visual Information Processing (RVP). In additional participants also performed the Iowa Gambling Test (IGT). Data presented are means ± SD.ResultsNone of the groups gained a significant amount of weight in the combined study population (161. ± 24 vs 162 ± 23.9 lbs, p=0.075), nor were there any differences among groups (interaction p=0.899). There was a decrease in the strategy score for SWM in the pooled study population (32.5 ± 5.7 vs 30.8 ± 6.5, p&lt;0.05), yet this coincided with a decrease in SWM errors (26.0 ±20.2 vs 21.3 ± 16.0, p&lt;0.01). RVP A’ also increased (0.90 ± 0.06 vs 0.92 ± 0.5, p&lt;0.05). Diet showed a greater improvement in memory in PAL relative to the water group (respectively 19.9 ±3.9 vs 21.8 ± 2.8 and 21.9 ± 3.2 vs 20.0 ± 4.6, p&lt;0.05). No other measures changed from pre to post intervention and none other than PAL Memory were affected by group assignment (p&gt;0.05).ConclusionThese data do not support the theory that regular consumption of sweet beverages, either SSB or diet, cause cognitive changes that have previously been associated with the development of obesity.Support or Funding InformationSupported by an unrestricted grant from The Coca Cola Company

No Effect of Sugar Sweetened Milk on Performance of a Battery of Cognitive Assessment Tests

IntroductionDietary sugar has been alleged to play a role in the development of cognitive dysfunction. Experimental procedures in which pure fructose is consumed, often at doses exceeding normal human consumption, may produce changes in cerebral activity and associated cognitive impairment. The practical implication of this is unclear, however, because of the rarity of pure fructose consumption in humans in isolation from other sugars and macronutrients. Therefore the purpose of this study was to test the effects of typical fructose consumption on cognitive function and compare the effects of pure fructose to fructose consumed from more common sources such as high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) or sucrose.MethodsAll participants were apparently healthy and weight stable prior to enrollment (no change in weight &gt;3% over the past three months; n=48, mean age 34.4 ± 11.1 years). Participants consumed sweetened or unsweetened low fat milk in amounts such that the added sugar contributed a target percentage of energy required for weight maintenance: fructose 9% (50th percentile of fructose consumption in the US), glucose 9%, high fructose corn syrup 18%, sucrose 18%; and an unsweetened milk control consumed such that milk contributed 18% of the weight‐maintenance calories over a 10 week period. The energy intake required for weight maintenance was estimated for each participant using the Mifflin St Jeor equation and an appropriate activity factor determined by responses to a physical activity questionnaire. Before and after the intervention participants were assessed on a battery of tests measuring a wide variety of cognitive functions (CANTAB). The tests used were: Spatial Working Memory (SWM), Intra‐Extra Dimensional Set Shift (IED), Stop Signal Task (SST), Delayed Matching to Sample (DMS), Paired Associates Learning (PAL), and Rapid Visual Information Processing (RVP). In addition, participants also performed the Iowa Gambling Test (IGT). Data presented are means ± SD.ResultsThere were small changes in weight (162.0 ± 28.5 vs 163.8 ±29.3) and BMI (26.0 ± 3.5 vs 26.3 ± 3.7) in the entire study population (p&lt;0.001), but no effect of group assignment (interaction p&gt;0.05). In the entire pooled study population, there were decreases in SST Reaction Time on Go (513.8 ± 179.2 vs 477.6 ± 146.2 ms, p&lt;0.05) and DMS Latency (2982.7 ± 742.4 vs 2762.7 ± 569.6 ms, p&lt;0.01), but neither measure was affected by group assignment (interaction p&gt;0.05). However, Reaction Time on SST saw an increase in only the glucose group (146.9 ± 34.9 vs 186.1 ± 52.6 ms, p&lt;0.05), which was significantly different to the change in SSTRT for sucrose and control (p&lt;0.05). No other measures changed from pre to post intervention or were affected by group assignment (p&gt;0.05).ConclusionThese data suggest that when fructose is consumed in the amounts and manner in which is typical in the human diet, previously reported changes in cognitive function are not observed. As such, these previous observations may be due to experimental conditions that do not reflect real life setting.Support or Funding InformationSupported by a grant from The Corn Refiners Association

Effects of socio-demographic variables on performance on the Cambridge neuropsychological automated tests for the assessment of dementia and Portuguese norms for older adults living in retirement homes

Objective: This study aimed to analyze the effects of age, education, gender, computer experience, institutionalization time, and psychotropic drug use on performance on four tests of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) which are recommended for the assessment of dementia (Rapid Visual Information Processing [RVP], Paired Associates Learning [PAL], Spatial Working Memory [SWM], and Reaction Time [RTI]), and to provide norms for Portuguese older persons without neuropsychiatric diagnoses who are living in retirement homes. Method: The normative sample included 128 adults aged 69–96 years who had no neuropsychiatric diagnosis and who had lived in retirement homes for 3–232 months. The CANTAB was administered, at the latest, one week after a screening session that comprised an interview and the administration of pencil-and-paper tests. Results: The simultaneous multiple linear regression models were significant (p < .05) for all tests except the RTI five-choice movement time measure. The total variance explained by the socio-demographic variables was smaller for the CANTAB measures (4–14%) than for the pencil-and-paper tests (10–33%). Significant effects involving age or gender were observed for RVP, PAL, and SWM. A marginally significant computer experience effect was found for the RTI simple movement time measure. We additionally observed significant effects of education, age, gender, and computer experience on several pencil-and-paper tests. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that different socio-demographic variables influence distinct tests and measures of the same test, and that the associations between computer experience and several pencil-and-paper tests may be mediated by possible cognitive skills developed through computer use.

Estimulação multissensorial e cognitiva em idosos institucionalizados e não institucionalizados: estudo exploratório*

RESUMO Investigou-se, empregando testes cognitivos, a duracao dos efeitos beneficos do Programa de Estimulacao Multissensorial e Cognitiva. Os participantes do estudo foram idosos institucionalizados e nao institucionalizados, sem historico de traumatismo crânio-encefalico, acidente vascular encefalico ou depressao primaria, com acuidade visual 20/30 ou superior, que participaram regularmente do Programa de Estimulacao Multissensorial e Cognitiva descrito em estudo anterior. Foram realizadas reavaliacoes aos dois, quatro, seis, oito e 12 meses apos a finalizacao do Programa, empregando-se o Mini Exame do Estado Mental e testes selecionados da Bateria Cambridge de Testes Neuropsicologicos Automatizados: Triagem Motora; Processamento Rapido de Informacao Visual; Tempo de Reacao; Aprendizagem Pareada; Memoria de Trabalho Espacial; e Pareamento com Atraso. Os resultados apontaram diferencas significativas entre os grupos, revelando taxa de declinio cognitivo maior nos idosos institucionalizados. Sugere-se que esse efeito esteja associado ao ambiente pobre de estimulos sensoriais, motores e cognitivos, assim como o estilo de vida sedentario e o isolamento dos idosos das instituicoes de longa permanencia. Alem disso, a analise das curvas Receiver Operating Characteristic, seguida dos calculos de especificidade e eficiencia estimadas para cada teste, revelaram que os testes da bateria Cambridge para memoria e aprendizado espacial pareado, assim como para memoria espacial de trabalho, permitem a distincao entre os grupos em todas as janelas de reavaliacao. Tomados em conjunto, os resultados sao de interesse para o planejador de politicas publicas, para recomendar programas regulares de estimulacao sensorial, motora e cognitiva para idosos institucionalizados, promovendo a reducao da taxa de progressao do declinio cognitivo senil.

The Effect of Chronic Alprazolam Intake on Memory, Attention, and Psychomotor Performance in Healthy Human Male Volunteers.

Alprazolam is used as an anxiolytic drug for generalized anxiety disorder and it has been reported to produce sedation and anterograde amnesia. In the current study, we randomly divided 26 healthy male volunteers into two groups: one group taking alprazolam 0.5 mg and the other taking placebo daily for two weeks. We utilized the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) software to assess the chronic effect of alprazolam. We selected Paired Associates Learning (PAL) and Delayed Matching to Sample (DMS) tests for memory, Rapid Visual Information Processing (RVP) for attention, and Choice Reaction Time (CRT) for psychomotor performance twice: before starting the treatment and after the completion of the treatment. We found statistically significant impairment of visual memory in one parameter of PAL and three parameters of DMS in alprazolam group. The PAL mean trial to success and total correct matching in 0-second delay, 4-second delay, and all delay situation of DMS were impaired in alprazolam group. RVP total hits after two weeks of alprazolam treatment were improved in alprazolam group. But such differences were not observed in placebo group. In our study, we found that chronic administration of alprazolam affects memory but attentive and psychomotor performance remained unaffected.